-
Gold discovered in Australia
Gold discovered in New South Wales (Aus) in 1851 + by 1866 Victoria producing £124 mill worth in gold (1/3 of the world production at the time)
Australian mines began to run dry in 1860s but later discoveries made in Kalgoorlie in Western Australia -
British Empire in Africa in 1857
Cape Colony - 100,000 whites + 150,000 black Africans - vital staging post for ships sailing east
Natal - 10,000 white + 100,000 black Africans -
Cawnpore (now Kanpur)
As British troops approached Cawnpore (rebel held town) in Jul 1857 - 200 captive British women + children killed
Outcry from British public expressed in the press -- perceived as evidence of Indian's 'savage' nature + heavily radicalised language used Major-General Henry Havelock recaptured Cawnpore in Jul 1857 + Lucknow in Sep 1857 seen as a national hero and public paid for a statue to be erected of him in Trafalgar Square after his death in Nov 1857 -
Indian Rebellion
Sepoys in the army motivated by grievances with pay and service conditions -- sepoys in Bengal refused to obey orders in Feb 1857 + other battalions followed - Sepoys seized control of most northern cities + attempt made to reinstate old Mughal Emperor -- joined by members of both rural and urban populations
Brutal British response -- villages (Delhi + Lucknow) devastated/burnt + rebels (+wives and children) murdered + tortured
British control restored after battle at Gwalior in Jun 1858 -
Education institutions established in India
Universities established in Bombay, Madras + Calcutta in 1857 + elite schools (e.g Rajkumar College, Mayo College + Bombay's Catherdal School) set up in order to produce 'Westernised Oriental Gentlemen'
In 30 years that followed 1857, 60,000 Indians entered the universities -
David Livingstone went to Africa
Missionary 'moral duty' - "to try and make an open path for commerce and Christianity" -
Suez Canal Company set up
Ran the canal for 99 years -- Between 1854 - 1856 Frenchman, Ferdinand de Lesseps obtained concession from Egypt to create co. to construct + run canal -
Government of India Act
- East India Company's terrritories/rule passed to Queen + Co. ceased to exist
- Secretary of State for India (cabinet post) received powers/duties formerly exercised by East India Co. directors
- Council of 15 member (Indian Council) appointed to assist SoS
- Viceroy appointed to replace Co. Governor-General
- Indian Civil Service placed under control of SoS
-
On the Origin of Species published
Charles Darwin's theories of natural selection were applied to the human race
Quasi-scientists justified their views by trying to suggest that indigenous people were 'weaker races' + attempted to categorise/define racial attributes + groups Pseudoscientific ideas appropriated and used to support belief some Europeans had in their racial superiority -
Period: to
Viceroy Canning's tour of India
Designed to win back support from those alienated by British rule
As a result -- some land + titles returned to Indians; Star of India medals introduced (order of chivalry founded by Queen Victoria in 1861); positions in Imperial Assembly/Statutory Civil Service shared amongst Indian nobility; more education establishments opened -
International Exhibition
Held in South Kensington: Featured over 28,000 exhibitors from 36 countries + represented wide range of industry, technology + arts
Displayed 7000 exhibits from India alone -
Isma'il Pasha came to power in Egypt
Committed to modernisation + embarked on irrigation projects, building of railways/schools and the cutting of the Suez Canal -
Mary Carpenter visits to India
Social reformer Mary Carpenter visited India four times between 1866 and 1875 and helped est. corps of British teaches for Indian girls' schools in Bombay and Ahmedabad and a college to train female Indian teachers -
1867 Reform Act
Extended electorate from 1 mill adult males in England and Wales to 2.5 mill men by including part of urban male working class pop. (out of a total British pop. of 30 mill) 1884 Parliamentary Act - right to vote extended to 2/3 of British men (5.5 mill men) -
Discovery of Diamonds in West Griqualand
Diamonds discovered near Kimberly on the Vaal River in West Griqualand (bordering on Orange Free State) -- tiggered a diamond rush that attracted both white settlers and indigenous Bantu-speaking peoples to the area -
Suez Canal opened
Work began in 1859 + completed 10 years later -Connected the Mediterranean with the Red Sea and the Arabian Peninsula -- route 6000 miles shorter than via the Cape -
Education Act 1870
Increased national literacy rates as schools built and managed in areas that lacked education systems -
Germany united
Germany became a united country and a new power house in Europe -- increased its industrial power + German merchant ships became more frequent on the high seas -
British annexation of West Griqualand
Following annexation, 2000 Griqua people trekked eastwards to establish Griqualand East in 1873 -
Disraeli's Crystal Palace Speech
Presented Disraeli's newfound enthusiasm for empire "no minister in this country will do his duty who neglects any opportunity of reconstructing as much as possible our colonial empire"
New perspective partly a way of winning electoral support + party secured electoral victory in 1874 (conservatives had not won election since 1841) -
Period: to
Long Depression
Economic slump in Europe -- 'cycle of dependency' = Britain exploited African recourses to manufacture goods that would then be sold back to Africa -
Annexing territory in Malaya
In response to increasing French presence in Asia (Indo-China) -- Britain extended its influence beyond previous base in Singapore (est. 1819) -
Disraeli brought shares in Suez Canal
British PM, Benjamin Disraeli brought 44% shares (Khedive Isma'il Pasha's shares) in Suez Canal for £4 mill - controlling stake in the company - without parliamentary consent -
British proposal for a federation rejected by Boers
After Griqualand East also annexed by Britain in 1874 the British went on to propose a federation of the British and Boer territories --Boers gave a firm rejection -
Brussels Conference
King Leopold II (Belgium) hosted conference of explores/leaders of geographical societies
Concluded -- Africans incapable of developing the natural recourses available in Central Africa (European intervention necessary); routes within Africa need to be developed by building railways or roads; International African Association est. to coordinate European efforts
"co-operation" X -- heightened competition/suspicion - e.g France extended control into Western Sudan (1879) -
Transvaal occupied by British
Boers not successful in conflict with the Pedi people + Transvaal (Boer settlers) bankrupt + faced Zulu attack -- reluctantly agreed to accept British overlordship -
Queen Victoria made Empress of India
As a result of the 'Royal Titles Act' - steered through House of Commons by Disraeli
Symbol of British domination in India -
Xhosa War 1877-78
Instability in area due to tensions between British and Boer settlers -- British disarmed neighbouring communities in Xhosa War + annexed them to the cape -
British invasion of Afghanistan
Fears of incursion into India from Afghan tribes + Russian interest in area -- Viceroy Lytton launched invasion of Afghanistan in Nov 1878 (British-Indian troops losses = almost 10,000 (twice as many as Afghan losses) before eventual victory secured British control over Afghanistan)
Became North-West Frontier Provence in 1901 -
North Borneo Trading Company received charter for administration of North Borneo
North Borneo Trading Company administered territory which benefitted from deposits of coal, iron and copper + tabaco and coffee plantations (also a key strategic site for Britain in the South China Sea at a mid point between Indian and Hong Kong) -
British invasion of Zululand
After annexation of Transvaal, Britain invaded Zululand in Jan 1879.
Zulu army defeated British at ISANDLWANA later in Jan 1879 forcing a British retreat
Reinforcements sent in to British Army + British defeated Zulus and their capital ULUNDI in Jul 1879 -- Zululand incorporated into Natal -
Muhammad Ahmad declared himself the Mahdi (saviour of mankind)
Ahmad drew on long term resentment towards Egyptian rule in Sudan -- emerging political movement called the 'jihadist' army
'Mahdists' sought to liberate Sudan from from outside rule + by 1882 had complete control of area surrounding Khartoum -
Majuba Hill
1880--Boers rejected British rule and declared total independence from Britain
Boers attacked British garrisons across the Transvaal + won a series of victories that culminated in humiliating British failure at Majuba Hill in Feb 1881 (150 Britons killed0 -- British forced to sign Convention of Pretoria (recognised Boer self government in Transvaal but British still claimed control over external affairs) -
Riots in Alexandria, Egypt
Political tensions resulted in violence in streets of Alexandria (Egypt) -- Claimed lives of 50 Europeans + 125 Egyptians
Further series of revolts across Egypt = convinced PM Disraeli to intervene -- British naval forces send to bombard Alexandria
Arabi Pasha (military officer) declared war -
Occupation of Egypt (and the Sudan)
British occupation est. a 'client state' (own ruler but strong British influence that restricts leader's independence) -- Tewfiq secured as British puppet ruler in 1882 after battling Arabi Pasha's forces to re-take Cairo -
Boy's Brigade
Example of the clubs and associations established that reinforced imperialist values by offering military training and reminded young men of the 'glorious' British Empire -
The Berlin Conference
Otto von Bismarck (German Chancellor) hosted (1884-1885) -- attended by 14 foreign ministers of European states+USA (Fr, Ger, UK+Por major players)
General Act signed: all nations permitted trade in basin of Congo; free trade in these regions; protection of indigenous people; support religious, scientific, charitable undertakings
EFFECTIVE OCCUPATION - could assert claim if could demonstrate administration + policy
(1884-80% Africa under local control/1900 - 90% Africa under European control) -
Convention of London
British influence over Egypt confirmed -- international loan given to Egyptian government - became a 'veiled protectorate' - Evelyn Baring (Consul-General) + group of British administrators ruled behind screen of Egyptian ministers -
British forces overrun in Khartoum, Sudan
Gladstone (PM) ordered General Gordon to oversee evacuation of British + Egyptian troops from Khartoum in 1884 -- forces overrun in Jan 1885 (virtually entire garrison killed + General Gordon beheaded in attack)
Gladstone's intervention seen by British public -- labelled in the press as the 'murderer of Gordon' -
Annexation of Bechuanaland
British military expedition of 4000 British + local troops sent from Cape Town led by Major-General Charles Warren in late 1884 to assert British sovereignty over the area
Warren met with Boer leader (Kruger) in Jan 1885 and was assured that Boer administration could maintain order but ignored discussion and forced annexation
North became protectorate + south become a crown colony -
Charter granted to Royal Niger Company
Permitted trade in lands alongside Niger and Benue rivers + gave permission for expansion northwards/serve as government of Niger region Other companies granted charters: Imperial British East Africa Co. (1888) and British South Africa Company (1889)
purpose of charted co. -- generate profit for British shareholders which led to the ruthless exploitation of local peoples + land -
Gold found in Witwatersrand
Prompted gold rush to previously struggling Dutch-Boer republic of Transvaal (over 30,000 skilled labourers from Britain travelled to Transvaal as tin mines closed in Cornwall) -- influx of migrants encouraged British ambitions -
Home Rule Bill for Ireland
Act of Union 1801 - incorporated Ireland into UK
'Home Rule' movement grew in 1860s + promoted idea of separate Irish legislature to decide upon its own domestic affairs
Irish Government ('Home Rule') Bill of 1886 failed to pass through parliament but signified Gladstone's reluctant imperialist status -
Colonial and Indian Exhibition
Held in South Kensington + houses built in 'Indian style' and items/artefacts displayed
Indians brought from India as 'living exhibits' -- ex. of how colonial peoples were paraded in Europe for the purpose of entertainment and stratification of European curiosity -
British East Africa under Charted Company rule