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Johann Miescher
Isolated DNA from the nuclei of white blood cells. -
Herman Muller
Herman Muller showed that exposing fruit flies to X-rays increased the mutation by about 1,500 times. -
George Beadle and Edward Tatum
George Beadle and Edward Tatum presented the "one gene, one enzyme" hypothesis: Each gene is translated into an enzyme to perform tasks within an organism -
Oswald Avery
Oswald Avery theorized that DNA, not protein, was Griffiths' "transforming principle." -
Max Delbuck and Salvador Laria
Max Delbruck and Salvador Luria organized a course at Cold Spring Harbor Labs, located on New Yorks Long Island, to study a type of bacterial virus that consists of a protein coat containing DNA -
Erwin Chaggaf
Erwin Chagaff determined there is always a ratio of 1:1 adenine to thymine in DNA of many different creatures. -
Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase
Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase performed the famous "blender experiment" using phages. -
James Watson and Francis Crick
James Watson and Francis Crick examined several clues to determine the structure of DNA -
Francis Crick and George Gamow
Francis Crick and George Gamow worked out the "central dogma" explaining how DNA functions to make protein. -
Marshall Nirenberg and Severo Ochoa
Marshall Nirenberg and Severo Ochoa discovered that specific nucleotide sequences in groups of three determine each of 20 amino acids -
Paul Berg
Paul Berg cut sections of viral DNA and bacterial DNA with the same restriction enzyme -
Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer
Created a plasmid with dual antibiotic resistance by patching together two DNA fragments with different specific antibiotic resistance. -
The First Practical Application of Genetic Engineering
The first practical application of genetic engineering was the expression of the gene for the human hormone somatostatin in reproducing bacterial cells. -
Genetech
Havard researchers used genetic engineering techniques to reproduce rat insulin. Genentech, a biotechnology company, produced human insulin. -
Genentech Produces Growth Hormones
Genentech produced human growth hormones and two kinds of interferon. -
The U.S. Supreme Court
The U.S. Supreme Court decided that man-made microbes could be patented -
Human Genome Project
The first discussion of initiating a Human Genome Project -
First Living Mammal
The first living mammal was patented. Harvard University received the patent on a line of genetically engineered laboratory mice used in cancer study -
Cystic Fibrosis Gene
Francis Collins and La-Chee Tsui identify the Cystic Fibrosis gene -
First Successful Gene Therapy
The first successful gene therapy, performed on a girl with an inherited immune deficiency disorder -
FDA
The first genetically engineered food is approved by the FDA -
Dolly the Sheep
Dolly the Sheep is the first mammal to be cloned -
Celera
The joint announcement of a completed "working draft" DNA sequence of the human genome by the public project and the private company, Celera -
Human Genome Sequence
Announcement of the final completion of the human genome sequence
