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FRG joins NATO
Khrushchev feared that the US could place nuclear weapons in West Germany. The brain drain of skilled workers from East Germany to the West had prompted complaint from the leaders of the FRG. The better living conditions and availability of consumer goods in the West frustrated Khrushchev. Competition from China and the precarity of the satellite states made Khrushchev fear for the USSR's security. -
Geneva Summit
France's Faure, USSR's Bulganin, Eden and Eisenhower discussed the 'open skies' proposal that allowed for aerial reconaissance. Soviet rejection warranted a propaganda victory for the Allies. Negotiations over Germany concluded that reuinification under free and fair elections should be carried out. However, disagreement over German neutrality and demilitarisation condemned the Germanies to the status quo. -
Khurshchev delivers 'Secret Speech' at 20th Communist Party Congress
Khrushchev had became First Secretary of the Communist party and emerged from the collective leadership of 53-55. He condemned Stalin's rule of terror, totalitarianism and cult of personality. Domestically, he sought 'de-Stalinisation' by preferring an Leninist command economy. He believed that other states could be converted to communism simply by seeing the success of the USSR, linking to his policy of 'peaceful co-existence' with the West. Foreign policy, civilised politics and better live st -
Workers' demonstrations in Poznan, Poland begin
Placards of "We demand bread" characterised the Polish workers, who demanded better working conditions and wages. The contents of Khrushchev's speech had catalysed an uprising of Poles, also calling for decollectivisation of agriculture and freedom for the Catholic Church.
Khrushchev remained an advocate for the USSR to have nuclear weapons, lead the communist world and control the satellite states, however he emphasised negotiation and diplomacy with the West. -
Stalinist Matyas Rakosi replaced as Hungarian communist Premier
His attempt to arrest 400 Communist opponents faced criticism, and Eno Gero was called in to replace him. -
Martial Law imposed across Poland
Khrushchev threatened a Soviet invasion and installed Wladyslaw Gomulka as First Secretary of the Polish Communist Party who promised continued Warsaw Pact membership. Poland's connections with China convinced Khrushchev that military intervention was not necessary, and he allowed Poland a degree of autonomy. -
Students in Hungary begin anti-Soviet protest
Their 16 key demands included the installation of more moderate Imre Nagy. Nagy sought a multiparty political system and withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact. The protests descended into street warfare with Hungarian secret police intervention. -
Imre Nagy appointed Prime Minister of Hungary
Despite Nagy's meetings with Soviet officials, Soviet tanks rolled into Budapest and fired on unarmed civilians. The intervention was cut short when Nagy stressed negotiations and the Soviets became aware of China's support for Hungary. -
Nagy announces withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact
Alongside a declaration of neutrality in the Cold War and appeals to the United Nations, Nagy's regime was crushed within days. The Red Army surrounded Budapest and killed 4,000 Hungarians, with 200,000 Hungarians fleeing. -
Janos Kadar installed as Hungarian leader
The invasion warranted UN and international condemnation, but it set the precedent of Soviet intervention when their satellite states seemed threatened. It also established Western non-intervention behind the Iron Curtain. Strikes continued into the 1857 and moderate attemtps at reform were made. -
Eisenhower re-elected President in another landslide
In a replay of the 1952 election, Eisenhower wins this time by 457 electoral college votes to Stevenson's 73 -
Total output of American corporations becomes largest single economy in Europe
This horrified French President Charles de Gaulle, demonstrating the massive influence and supposed 'dollar imperialism' the Marshall Plan gave the US in Western Europe. -
Sputnik 1 launched into the atmosphere by the USSR
The possibility of the USSR being able to launch nuclear missiles from space panicked Americans. This prompted criticism from Eisenhower and a greater American investment ($1BN) in the 'space race'. -
Gaither Report commissioned by Eisenhower
Eisenhower's report suggested that the USSR had superior missile technology, contrary to subsequent U-2 reconnaissance. The equal footing of the Soviet missile technology to the US alarmed many, despite the fact that American technology could develop at a faster pace. Eisenhower used the report to lobby NATO members, including Britain and Turkey, to house intermdiate-range ballistic missiles -
National Aeronautics and Space Adminstration (NASA) created
Eisenhower aimed to show US committment to the space race. -
Khrushchev issues Berlin ultimatum
Following his proposals for Berlin to be a 'free city' without military influence, Khrushchev demanded the withdrawal of troops from Berlin. He threatened to pursue a treaty with East Germany that would transfer the occupation of East Berlin to the former. Rejected by the West. -
Khrushchev meets Eisenhower at Camp David
Demonstrated goodwill, Khrushchev had an article published in Foreign Affairs the following month outlining his committment to peaceful co-existence. -
PM Macmillan visits Moscow
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Cuban Revolution concludes, Castro overthrows Batista
Seen as the US' 'backyard' due to its economic links and geographical proximity, Castro's Marxist-Leninist coup alarmed the US and their fear of the domino theory. Castro radically changed Cuba's economy and society, requesting the USSR for assistance and surviving numerous CIA assassination attempts. The US soon seized all US-owned property in Cuba, disguising it as agrarian reform. -
Khrushchev meets Mao in Beijing
In a symbolic event of the Sino-Soviet split, this meeting proved to be the last meeting between leaders of the USSR and China for 30 years. Mao saw Khrushchev as deviating from orthodox Marxist-Leninism by co-operating with the West. Mao sought revolutionary war against the West. Khrushchev rejected providing China with nuclear support and removed all Russian technicians working in China. -
National Liberation Front (NLF) created in Vietnam
Aiming to unify Vietnam as a socialist state, the NLF accused Diem's regime as being reminiscent of the French, and backed by the new imperialists of the US. Led by Nguyen Huu Tho, but misunderstood by the Americans and Diem. Labelling them as Ho Chi Minh's Viet Cong, the Americans failed to recognise the diversity and attraction of the NLF whose 10 Point Programme garnered support across South Vietnam. A guerilla war attacking American supply bases, roads and government buildings ensued. -
USSR supplies Castro's regime with $100 million in assets
This was followed by a refusal to refine Cuban oil by US companies, and Castro's nationalisation of the oil industries. The US reduced Cuban sugar imports by 95% and Cuba seized $1 Bn US assets. -
U-2 Incident
Soviet air force shot down an American U-2 spy plane. The plane had reported that the USSR's nuclear capabilties were not as advanced as the US. This event outraged Khrushchev. -
Paris Summit
The talks were overshadowed by the U-2 affair, and relations as well as negotiations around Berlin stalled between the Four Powers. -
John F. Kennedy inaugurated as President
Kennedy, first Roman Catholic President defeats the incumbent vice-president Richard Nixon in a closely contested election (303-219). He allocated major increases in federal spending to NASA, as well as technological education. In 1962, the US completed 63 successful space missions compared to the USSR's 15. Kennedy promised an anti-communist foreign policy and threatened war over Berlin if negotiations failed. -
Bay of Pigs Invasion begins
The Cuban Democratic Revolutionary Front, a 1,500-strong group of anti-Castro exiles supported by the CIA, attempted to overthrow Castro's regime. Conceived by Eisenhower and continued by Kennedy, who saw Cuba as a communist satellite state of the Soviet Union, the disaster consolidated Cuba and the USSR's friendship. -
Construction of the Berlin Wall commences
Beginning with the erection of barbed-wire fences, Ulbricht had successfully convinced Khrushchev to take decisive action over Berlin. The atmosphere of division prompted tank staredowns between the two superpowers in the streets of Berlin. The Wall had the effect of stopping the brain drain and boosting the East's economy, however it was used as a propaganda tool by Kennedy and subsequent US presidents to condemn communism and authoritarianism. -
Tsar Bomba detonated
3000 times as destructive as Hiroshima. Demonstrated the progress in Soviet hydrogen bomb development. -
Yuri Gagarin becomes first man in space
Orbit of Earth completed aboard Vostok 1. Demonstrated Soviet lead in the space race. -
Strategic Hamlet Program begins
Coupled with Kennedy's increase of military advisors in Vietnam, he collaborated with Diem to build barricades around rural peasant villages. This strategy backfired as the NLF used the discontent and corruption surrounding the hamlets to recruit members. Despite 3,000 hamlets exisiting in South Vietnam by the end of 1962, the policy was quickly abandoned. -
Operation Mongoose begins
Kennedy's series of covert operations including assassination attempts aimed to overthrow Castro. It also included US military manoeuvres being performed in the Caribbean. Khrushchev saw Cuba as an opportunity for socialism to gain a foothold in the Americas, and as a base for nuclear weapons. -
U-2 spy plane discovers Soviet missiles in Cuba
Khrushchev had believed the missiles would go undetected. -
Kennedy orders naval quarantine of Cuba
This decision had followed a week of consideration with ExComm. Announced on television, the quarantine would prevent the supply of any weapons from Soviet ships into Cuba and was followed by UN condemnation. -
Khrushchev condemns the quarantine; offers a guarantee
Soviet ships complied with the quarantine, and Khrushchev promised to move the Soviet military presence in Cuba if the US would not invade the USSR. Castro ordered anti-aircraft missiles to be deployed on any low flying planes that could be considered reconnaissance planes. -
Cuban Missile Crisis ends, agreement reached
Kennedy secretly agreed to withdraw missiles from Turkey without alerting NATO allies. Despite the death of a U-2 pilot, Khrushchev and Kennedy agreed to de-escalate the situation by removing missiles from Cuba. Castro did, however, refuse to allow UN weapons inspectors into Cuba. The Crisis demonstrated the need for communication, diplomacy and mutual respect. Whilst Khrushchev had succeeded in protecting a communist state, his reputation suffered from the image of backing down and cowing to US -
Self-Immolation of Thich Quang Duc in Saigon
Emblematic of the persecution of Buddhists in South Vietnam - the 'Buddhist Crisis', Duc burned himself alive in protest. The month previous, Diem's regime had banned the flying of Buddhist flags and dispersed Buddhist gatherings. Buddhist leaders soon met with US officials whilst protesting with non-violent methods. -
Ngo Dinh Diem assassinated as part of Military coup
Opposition to Diem's repressive regime culminated in a coup, with tacit CIA approval, by the Military Revolutionary Council. The new leadership released political prisoners and increased dependecy on the United States.