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German States: Frederick William III
Frederick William III was king of Prussia from 1797 to 1840. He ruled Prussia during the difficult times of the Napoleonic Wars and the end of the Holy Roman Empire. -
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Russia: Tsar Alexander I
Changed Russia's position with France four times from neutrality, opposition, and alliance. In 1805 he joined Britain in the War of the Third Coalition against Napoleon, but after suffering massive defeats at the battles of Austerlitz and Friedland he switched and formed an alliance with Napoleon by the Treaty of Tilsit. -
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France: Louis XVIII
Louis was the monarch of France during the onset of the revolution. The people opposed him due to his frivolous spending and mistreatment of the lower class. He was eventually executed with his wife which marked the beginning of the true revolution of France. -
German States: German Confederation
German Confederation, organization of 39 German states, established by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to replace the destroyed Holy Roman Empire. It was a loose political association, formed for mutual defense, with no central executive or judiciary. -
Low Countries: Union of Netherlands and Belgium
The Benelux Union is a politico-economic union of three neighbouring states in western Europe: Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg. It is now used more generally to refer to the geographic, economic and cultural grouping of the three countries. -
Great Britain: Peterloo Massacre
Took place in St. Peters Field, Manchester where protestors had gathered to demand parliamentary representation. -
German States: Karlsbad Decrees
These decrees were a set of reactionary restrictions which made a uniform guideline for press censorship and government supervision. The aim was to prevent any liberal movement towards the conservative government of Germany. -
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France: Charles X
Charles became the leader of a radical monarchist faction and was deeply unpopular from the start of his reign. Under his rule landowners were reimbursed for the abolition of feudalism and the Catholic church rose in power -
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Russia: Tsar Nicholas I
Nicholas I was the Emperor of Russia from 1825 until 1855. He was also the King of Poland and Grand Duke of Finland. He is best known as a political conservative whose reign was marked by geographical expansion, repression of dissent, economic stagnation, poor administrative policies, a corrupt bureaucracy, and frequent wars -
France: July Revolution
Also known as the Second French Revolution the July Revolution marked the shift from a constitutional monarchy under the house of Bourbon to the House of Orleans and the replacement of hereditary right. -
Low Countries: Belgian Independence
One of the main causes of the Belgian Revolution was the dominance of the Dutch over all economic, political and social aspects of the kingdom. In august 1830 riots began in Brussels, despite attempts to restore peace the rioting continued and radicals emerged. The States-General in Brussels later voted for succession. -
Russia: Polish Uprising
The November Uprising, also known as the Polish Revolution, was an armed rebellion in the heartland of partitioned Poland against the Russian Empire -
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France: Louis-Philippe
The reign of Louis Philippe is known as the July Monarchy and was dominated by wealthy industrialists and bankers. He followed conservative policies He also promoted friendship with Britain and sponsored colonial expansion. His popularity faded as economic conditions in France deteriorated in 1847, and he was forced to abdicate after the outbreak of the French Revolution of 1848. -
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Italian States: King Charles Albert of Piedmont
He became king of Sardinia in 1831 on the death of his cousin Charles Felix, who had no heir. After an initial conservative period during which he supported European legitimist movements, he adopted the idea of a federal Italy, led by the Pope and freed from the House of Habsburg in 1848 -
Great Britain: Reform Act
The Representation of the People Act 1832 was an Act of Parliament of the United Kingdom that introduced wide-ranging changes to the electoral system. The act was designed to "take effectual Measures for correcting divers Abuses that have long prevailed in the Choice of Members to serve in the Commons House of Parliament". -
Great Britain: Poor Law
A system of poor relief which existed in England and Wales, these laws were welcomed because they were believed to reduce the cost of looking after the poor, take beggars off the street and encourage people to support themselves. -
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Austrian Empire: Ferdinand I
Ferdinand I was often seen as a weak king unable of properly ruling the empire. He suffered from severe epilepsy and became the last Hapsburg king to be crowned king of Bohemia -
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German States: Frederick William IV
Frederick William IV the eldest son and successor of Frederick William III of Prussia. He is best remembered for the many buildings he had constructed in Berlin and Potsdam, as well as for the completion of the Gothic Cologne Cathedral. In politics, he was a conservative -
Great Britain: Repeal of Corn Laws
The Corn Laws weree tariffs put on imported food and grains. During the great famine of Ireland the drastic shortage of food supply led the Prime Minister to repeal these acts -
Italian States: Charles Albert attacks Austrians
Charles Albert led his forces against the Imperial Austrian army in the First Italian War of Independence but was defeated in 1849 at the Battle of Novara, after which he abdicated in favour of his son, Victor Emmanuel II -
France: June Days
The June Days uprising was an uprising staged by the workers of France from 23 to 26 June 1848. It was in response to plans to close the National Workshops, created by the Second Republic in order to provide work and a source of income for the unemployed -
German States: revolution in Germany
News of the 1848 Revolution in Paris quickly reached discontented bourgeois liberals, republicans, and more radical working-men. The first revolutionary uprisings in Germany began in the state of Baden in March 1848 and within a few days, there were revolutionary uprisings in other states including Austria and Prussia. -
Italian States: Revolutions
Revolutions of 1848, series of republican revolts against European monarchies, beginning in Sicily, and spreading to France, Germany, Italy, and the Austrian Empire. They all ended in failure and repression, and were followed by widespread disillusionment among liberals. -
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Austrian Empire: Francis Joseph I
Francis Joseph I was the longest reigning emperor of Austria and led the Empire into the Balkan wars which greatly frustrated the people and put the nation at risk. -
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German States: Frankfurt Assembly
The Frankfurt Parliament ) was the first freely elected parliament for all of Germany, after much debate the assembly developed the Frankfurt Constitution which proclaimed the German Empire as a Democracy.
