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1600 BCE
Edwin Smith Papyrus
The Edwin Smith Papyrus is an ancient work inscribed with some of the first known medical knowledge. The writing and knowledge are from roughly 3,000 BCE but this surviving copy dates to c. 1,600 BCE. The papyrus consists of 48 medical cases ranging across the human anatomy. In Egypt, this knowledge was used to treat people in higher classes. This writing is an early example of scientific knowledge being recorded and influenced the minds of ancient times and its contents are still studied today. -
1200 BCE
First Female Chemist
Mesopotamian perfumes were used by men and women for similar purposes as now. The most prolific creator of these perfumes was the first female chemist, Tapputi. "History of Perfume" states, "They created perfumes with mixtures of balsams, flowers, and plants such as Cyperus calamus and myrrh. They added water or other solvents, then distilled and filtered several times" (TCE, 2021). In a social context, her creation was used by royals and the wealthy to improve their scent and attract others. -
300 BCE
Euclid Publishes Elements
Euclid, a teacher in Alexandria, is considered the "Father of Geometry." This moniker arose from the publication of his magnum opus, "Elements," in roughly 300 B.C.E. "Elements" utilized the work of others and arranged mathematical theorems in an easy-to-understand way. Fitzpatrick states "Euclid's Elements is by far the most famous mathematical work of classical antiquity" (2014). "Elements" importance has been seen across the world as every culture uses and studies Euclidean Geometry. -
60
Heron of Alexandria's Inventions
Hero lived in Alexandria in the first century and is known for his work in mathematics, astronomy, and mechanics. His encyclopedia states, "Pneumatica, in two books, describes a menagerie of mechanical devices, or “toys" (Britannica, 2021). Some devices he engineered were used as tools while others were used as essentially party tricks. In his time his inventions drew great interest, today he is still thought of as one of the great inventors of the Roman Empire. -
1436
Invention of Printing Press
The printing press may be the most influential invention ever. Encyclopedia Britannica states "The earliest mention of a mechanized printing press in Europe appears in a lawsuit in Strasbourg in 1439; it reveals construction of a press for Johannes Gutenberg" (2022). The most important fact about the printing press is that it made the dissemination of information much more feasible. The cultural significance of this is it is responsible for the spread of religion, knowledge, and literacy. -
1543
Copernicus publishes De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium
Culturally the publication of "Six Books on the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres" ushered in what is considered the "Scientific Revolution" and caused uproar in the church. In contrast to current beliefs, Copernicus brought forth the idea that the Earth revolves around the sun. "De Revolutionibus" states, "This "geocentric" myth was not easy to de-bunk: it was popularly held to be true... by two millennia of philosophical tradition"(MacLean, 2008). Today we know that Copernicus was correct. -
1570
Sophia Brahe Begins Assisting Brother
Tycho Brahe was one of the most influential astronomers of his time. But his work could not have been completed without help from his sister Sophia. The two published a remarkably accurate publication of astronomical phenomena. Her encyclopedia states, "Sophia assisted with the observations that led to his computation of the lunar eclipse of December 8, 1573" (Encyclopedia.com, 2019). Socially, the inclusion of her name in her and Tycho's work established women's place in the sciences. -
Telescope is Invented
Though disputed, "Who Invented the Telescope" states, "The first person to apply for a patent for a telescope was Dutch eyeglass maker Hans Lippershey" (Cox, 2021). This device was capable of magnifying objects by 3x. The utility of this invention was immediately understood as Galileo heard of the invention and built one capable of 20x magnification in 1609. The importance of this event is it has enabled humans to find out secrets of the universe while also having utilitarian uses on Earth. -
Papin Invents Steam Digester
After spending time with Huygens and Boyle, Papin in 1679 invented the steam digester, the first pressure cooker. This was described as "a closed vessel with a tightly fitting lid that confines the steam until a high pressure is generated, raising the boiling point of the water" (Britannica, 2023). Papin even had the foresight to have a safety valve on the device. This was culturally significant because Papin's ideas led to the defining invention of the industrial revolution, the steam engine. -
Newton publishes Principia
"Principia" is no less than the most influential physics text ever written. Smith states "No work was more seminal in the development of modern physics and astronomy than Newton's Principia" (Smith, 2007). Within "Principia" Newton lays out the laws of motion discussing gravity and defining space and time. Some of the ideas have been proven wrong but the majority is correct. This matters to culture because it laid the groundwork for modern physics and also resulted in the creation of calculus. -
James Watt Improves the Steam Engine
Though Watt did not invent the steam engine he did work towards perfecting it. Watts Encyclopedia states, "While repairing a model Newcomen steam engine in 1764, Watt was impressed by its waste of steam" (Kingsford, 2023). This led him to create the separate condenser which greatly improved the efficiency of the steam engine. This event had a great impact on the era's culture as Watt's engines found their way into factories and enabled the employment of many and the mass production of goods. -
Banneker Publishes Almanac
Banneker had an exceptional resume for any man, but especially for a black man in the 1700s. He surveyed Washington D.C., engineered a near-perfect clock, and created an almanac from his observations of the sky. Keene states "[the pages] reveal a man with a full heart and an active mind... a scientist on one page and a philosopher on the next" (Keene, 2019). The publication of his almanac allowed him to spread his knowledge, such as when eclipses will happen, and spread abolitionist literature. -
Dalton Publishes his Atomic Theory
In 1808 John Dalton made the biggest breakthrough in atomic theory since Democritus. Dalton came up with 5 tenets about atoms when studying the theory of partial pressures and the law of multiple proportions. Though partially false, Daltonian Atomic Theory has been finalized and still stands as the basis for chemistry today. This theory has made Dalton "the father of chemistry." Though its importance was not immediately understood, it was later accepted by the entire scientific community -
Gauss Theorizes Non-Euclidean Geometry
An advancement in geometry hadn't occurred since Euclid published "Elements." In 1813 Karl Gauss claimed geometry that didn't follow Euclid's tenets. "Non-Euclidean Geometry" states "His most significant contributions to geometry came in his analysis of surfaces, and this analysis played an important role in the understanding of non-Euclidean geometries" (Banchoff, 1995). The cultural importance is it laid the groundwork for modern geometry that proved other scientific theories like relativity. -
Morse Begins Developing Telegraph
Samuel Morse was an art professor at New York University, but one day the electric telegraph piqued his interest. He first created his code and then created his tools to type it. His encyclopedia states "In 1843 Morse obtained financial support from the U.S. government to build a demonstration telegraph system 60 km long between Washington, D.C., and Baltimore, Md" (McGillem, 2023). His system impacted culture as it caused a paradigm shift in communication and connected people across the world. -
Mobius Strip Invented
August Mobius's Strip is a simple object, it is a strip of paper given a half turn with the ends connected. The simplicity is also perplexing as the paper now has one side. "Mobius Strips" says "the Möbius strip, is fundamental to the entire field of topology and serves as a quintessential example of various mathematical principles" (English, 2020). An example of a principle is nonorientability. Just like space and time, direction can't be assigned. Social impact-wise, it leaves many to wonder. -
Currie discovers Radium and Polonium
Marie and Pierre Curie were a power couple of science. They were awarded a Nobel Prize in recognition of their discovery of two elements and their study of radiation. Madame Curies Biography states "Curie developed methods for the separation of radium... [allowing] the careful study of its properties, therapeutic properties in particular." Curie's impact on society is the inspiration she gave to women and from a scientific standpoint made groundbreaking work on radiation; dangers and benefits. -
First Successful Airplane
Wilbur and Orville Wright created their flyer in 1903 after years of development. This was the first plane capable of being controlled by the pilot. The encyclopedia states "After a first attempt failed on December 14, the machine was flown four times on December 17, to distances of 120, 175, 200, and 852 feet" (Crouch, 2023). These numbers are nothing compared to modern planes. But, the cultural impact of this plane was that it created the world's most efficient way of transportation ever. -
Einstein Theorizes General Relativity
Einstein's general theory of relativity states principles and the nature of gravity. This earth-shattering theory disproved some of Newton's notions in Principia. "General Relativity" states "Today relativity plays a role in many areas, cosmology, the big bang theory, etc. and has... [shown a] high degree of accuracy" (O'Connor, 1996). The cultural impact of this theory is profound. It laid the foundation for modern theoretical physics and continuously contributes to the study of the cosmos. -
Manhattan Project Starts
The Manhattan Project created the most insidious destructive technological advancement in human history. Led by Oppenheimer this government project produced the first atomic bomb. The encyclopedia states "The bomb generated an explosive power equivalent to 15,000 to 20,000 tons of TNT; the tower was completely vaporized and the surrounding desert surface fused to glass" (Britannica, 2023). The social impact of this event is seen today as nuclear weapons have had the world on edge since 1945. -
DNA Shape Discovered
Deoxyribonucleic Acid commonly known as DNA is the genetic sequence that defines all living things. "Discovery of DNA" states "Watson and Crick were not the discoverers of DNA, but rather the first scientists to formulate an accurate description of this molecule's complex, double-helical structure" (Pray, 2008). This new understanding of DNA and its purpose had a profound cultural impact. Today it is used to identify humans, tell ancestry, identify pathogens, and genetically improve plants. -
Kwolek Develops Kevlar
Stephanie Kwolek was a lifelong chemist and engineer who worked at DuPont and was the reason for their most impactful invention. The encyclopedia states, "a fibre that finds use in high-strength tirecord, reinforced boat hulls and other structural parts, and lightweight bulletproof vests." This invention is culturally significant as its durability and versatility have led to its use across many industries, including saving lives. Kwolek was able to overcome discrimination in the STEM fields. -
First Humans on Moon
The space race was decisively won when Armstrong set foot on the moon. Apollo 11 marks the peak of human exploration as we turned our sights from our planet to the great beyond. Armstrong's quote, "That is one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind," truly speaks volumes. The cultural significance of this event is that it reaffirmed humans as explorers and curious beings. On a smaller scale, it also cemented America as the world leader and contributed to the downfall of the Soviet Union. -
IBM Simon is Released
Before 1994 no one had ever used a smartphone. "The First Smartphone" states IBM's invention of Simon "would lay the foundations for mobile and app development for its innovative design and transformative look" (Chau, 2022). Simon's features included a calculator, a calendar, a fax machine, a phone, and a touch screen. The cultural impact of this device is significant as it kicked off the smartphone revolution and now humans walk around with more computing power than the Apollo missions had. -
Sheep is Cloned
In 1996 the Roslin Institute successfully cloned the first mammal. The encyclopedia states "[Dolly's birth] dispelled decades of presumption that adult mammals could not be cloned and igniting a debate concerning the many possible uses and misuses of mammalian cloning technology" (Fridovich-Keil, 2023). Socially, the ethics of this has been debated. Technology enables gene alteration, this can be seen as humans playing god. The cloning method also has the ability to bring back extinct species.