Expansion of English

Britain becomes separated from the European mainland

6000 BCE

Following the end of the last Ice Age, around 10,000 years ago, the levels of the North Sea began to rise as waters formerly locked up in great ice sheets melted. Sometime after about 8200 BC the last dry 'land bridge' from Lincolnshire and East Anglia to Holland was taken over by salt marsh. By 6000 BC even the marshes had largely gone, drowned by the sea.

Farming techniques are introduced from the continent

4500 BCE

Before circa 4500 BC, Palaeolithic and Mesolithic (Early and Middle Stone Age) people were nomads, hunting and gathering wild plants. In the middle of the fifth millennium BC, a new way of life, based on farming plants and animals, was introduced from the continent. The replacement of hunting and gathering was gradual and wasn't completed until the latter part of the third millennium BC in Britain. Once farming was established, communities began to settle down.

Simple pottery begins to be made

3500 BCE

The manufacture of pottery requires the control of high temperatures and is an important early technological development. Pottery arrived in Britain with the first farmers. Early pottery vessels were generally undecorated with heavy rims and rounded bases. From about 3500 BC the upper parts of some pottery vessels were decorated with patterns made while the clay was still soft. Pottery is important to archaeologists because it is very durable, surviving in the soil for thousands of years.

'Ritual landscapes' like henges and round barrows proliferate

3000 BCE

From circa 3000 BC some areas that were ritually important in earlier times gained added significance. There is evidence for smaller and more specialised ceremonial sites such as henges. A huge variety of Bronze Age round barrows began to proliferate after 2500 BC. Ritual landscapes were usually in flat or undulating countryside like Salisbury Plain, or in river valleys. They often clustered around earlier causewayed enclosures and there were dozens or even hundreds of different monuments.

Metalwork becomes increasingly sophisticated

2500 BCE

Early Bronze Age (2500-1500 BC) saw the regular production of more sophisticated metalwork, consisting mainly of axes, daggers and 'tanged' spearheads (attached to the shaft by a prong).

Ceremonial practices change as new religious ideas develop

1500 BCE

Ceremonial practices change as new religious ideas develop

The beginning of Celtic culture in the upper Danube region of central Europe.

1400 BCE

Celtic culture and tribal kingdoms start to emerge

1200 BCE

Changes in religion, ceremonial and burial practices imply social change. The new structure persisted through the Iron Age and has been labelled as 'Celtic'. It seems probable that the later Bronze Age controlling elites comprised a larger proportion of society and may have been centred upon a 'warrior aristocracy'. This is the period when the numerous tribes of Britain began to combine into the larger groupings that became the named tribal kingdoms of the Iron Age.

Celtic Migration begins in Europe with many Celts landing in Scotland.

900 BCE

Early Iron Age Hallstatt culture flourishes across Europe.

800 BCE

British landscape becomes dominated by hill forts

500 BCE

By the fourth century BC, many parts of Britain were dominated by hill forts. In some areas, such as central southern England and the Welsh borders, they were very large with complex earthworks and entrances (Maiden Castle in Dorset). There are significant examples in north Wales, the Borders and eastern regions of Scotland and in Northern Ireland (parts of the Navan complex). Many of these sites supported sizeable populations and acted as service centres for a growing rural population.

Alexander the Great receives Celtic ambassadors in the Balkans.

335 BCE

Alexander the Great receives Celtic delegations in Babylon.

323 BCE

4,000 Celts are employed in Egypt under Ptolemy II.

277 BCE

14,000 Celts serve under Ptolemy IV in his victory at Raphia over the Seleucid King Antiochos III.

212 BCE

Roman general Julius Caesar raids south east England

55 BCE

After conquering Gaul (modern France and Belgium), Julius Caesar crossed the Channel with two legions - about 10,000 men - probably to carry out reconnaissance and send a warning to the British allies of Gaulish tribes. Local tribes contested his landing on the beach at Deal near Dover, but their war chariots were driven back and they subsequently sought a truce. Caesar returned to the continent for the winter after bad weather damaged his fleet and prevented cavalry reinforcements arriving.

Julius Caesar launches a full-scale invasion of England

54 BCE

Julius Caesar invaded Britain for the second time with five legions - about 25,000 men - and won a series of battles before his fleet at Deal was once again wrecked by storms. This delay allowed the British to regroup under Cassivellaunus, ruler of the Catuvellauni tribe. He waged an effective guerrilla war before his betrayal by rival tribes handed Caesar victory. An impending rebellion in Gaul forced him to withdraw, never to return, but Britain was now within Rome's sphere of influence.

300 Celts serve as elite bodyguards for Cleopatra VII during her reign.

51 BCE

Caesar's siege and capture of Uxellodunum ends the Gallic War.

51 BCE

Roman emperor Augustus plans the invasion of Britain

27 BCE

Having defeated the last of his civil war rivals in 31BC, Augustus looked to set secure borders for Rome's empire. Plans were drawn up for an invasion of Britain, but they came to nothing. In his political testament 'Res Gestae', Augustus counts among his deeds that he received supplications from two British kings, Dumnobellaunus and Tincommius. Relations between Rome and Britain remained good for the next two generations, with evidence that Rome had a healthy trade with the Britons.

At the funeral of Herod II, his Celtic bodyguards are in attendance.

4 BCE

First 'brochs' or stone towers are constructed in Scotland

1 CE

The earliest 'brochs' date from 500-200 BC, and many were still occupied into the first millennium AD. They were built using two concentric, dry-stone walls to create a hollow tower. Between the walls were galleries and stairways leading to upper levels. Wooden upper floors probably provided the main living space, with the ground floor used as a secure store for livestock. Brochs are mainly located in northern and western Scotland, Orkney and Shetland, with the best example at Mousa on Shetland.

Cunobelinus becomes king of the Catuvellauni tribe

10

Cunobelinus (William Shakespeare’s 'Cymbeline'), ruled the Catuvellauni for about 30 years and conquered a huge territory. His name appears on coins issued at Colchester and St Albans and he is described by the Roman historian Suetonius as 'Britannorum rex' - king of the Britons. His core territory was Hertfordshire, but he eventually controlled much of East Anglia and the south east.

Crisis develops at the court of Cunobelinus

40

A succession struggle erupted around the throne of the ailing Cunobelinus, king of the powerful Catuvellauni tribe. Adminius, the king's younger son, was exiled and fled to the court of the Roman emperor, Caligula. His elder brothers, Caratacus and Togodumnus, were left in control of the extensive tribal territories stretching over much of East Anglia and the south east of England.

Emperor Claudius orders the invasion of Britain

43

An army of four legions and approximately 20,000 auxiliaries, commanded by senator Aulus Plautius, landed at Richborough, Kent. The Romans met a large army of Britons, under the Catuvellauni kings Caratacus and his brother Togodumnus, on the River Medway, Kent. The Britons were defeated in a two-day battle, then again shortly afterwards on the Thames. Togodumnus died and Caratacus withdrew to more defensible terrain to the west.

Emperor Hadrian orders the construction of a wall across northern Britain

122

Construction of the Antonine Wall, north of Hadrian's Wall, begins

142

Antonine Wall is evacuated and Romans withdraw to Hadrian's Wall

163

Britain is divided into two separate Roman provinces

211

n an effort to finally subdue Britain and improve its administration, a plan was conceived by emperor Septimius Severus, probably in 197 AD, to split the province in two. It was only put into effect in 211 AD, either by Severus or his son Caracalla. The southern province was named Britannia Superior (Upper Britain) with its capital at Londinium (London), and the northern named Britannia Inferior (Lower Britain), with the capital at Eboracum (York).

New foes attack northern and western Britain and the Picts appear on the record

250

Britons send a vain appeal for military assistance to the Roman emperor

410

Ninian becomes the first known Christian missionary in Scotland

430

Angles and Saxons arrive in south east Britain

449

Aidan founds the monastery of Lindisfarne, Northumbria

633

Aidan founds the monastery of Lindisfarne, Northumbria

726

Legates from Pope Hadrian I visit England

787

Viking army kills rival kings of Northumbria, capturing York

867

Vikings conquer the kingdom of Mercia

874

Eric Bloodaxe, the last Viking king in England, is forced out of Yorvik (York)

954

Edward the Confessor exiles the powerful nobleman, Earl Godwin of Wessex

1051

William of Normandy lands at Pevensey on the south coast of England

1066

Edward the Confessor dies and is succeed by Harold Godwinson

1066

Harald Hardrada, King of Norway, invades England

1066

Hardicanute, King of Denmark, had also been king of England in 1042. His short reign gave his descendents, who included Harald Hardrada, King of Norway, a claim to the English throne. When Harold Godwinson became king of England on the death of Edward the Confessor, Hardrada joined forces with Tostig, Harold's brother, and took an invasion fleet of approximately 300 ships to England to press his own claim. He raided the east coast, burning Scarborough, then sailed up the Humber river.

William of Normandy is crowned king of England

Dec 25, 1066

First Norman stone castle is built in Wales

1070

Bayeux Tapestry illustrating the Battle of Hastings is completed

1077

Oxford University is founded

1096

Henry I is crowned in Westminster Abbey

1110

Henry I's son, William, drowns on the 'White Ship'

1120

Englishman Nicholas Breakspear becomes Pope Hadrian IV

Dec 4, 1154

Nicholas Breakspear was a reforming monk who spent nearly his entire career on the Continent. He was elected in 1154 and took the name Hadrian IV. He remains the only Englishman ever to become pope.

Henry II, the first 'Plantagenet' king, accedes to the throne

Dec 19, 1154

The accession and coronation of Henry II took place on the same day. He was not only king of England, but also ruled over most of Wales, Normandy, Anjou, Gascony and other parts of France (acquired through his marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine). Henry, son of Empress Matilda, established stability after civil war between his mother and her rival Stephen. He asserted his authority over the barons and enforced law and governance. Regular financial rolls of government began in his reign.

Medieval French Inquisition begins

1184

Migrant scholars establish a university at Cambridge

1209

John and his barons sign the Magna Carta

Jun 15, 1215

John and his barons sign the Magna Carta

Henry III is crowned king of England

1216

Simon de Montfort's 'parliament' is summoned

1265

Edward I summons his 'Model Parliament'

1295

'Black Death' enters Britain

1348

The Rise of Rome and the de Medici Family

1400

Jack Cade leads a rebellion against war taxation

1450

Leonardo da Vinci and the Gutenberg Bible

1451

Marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile

1469

Henry Tudor defeats Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth

1485

Henry VII seizes the throne

1485

Henry VII presents himself as the unifier of the warring Lancaster and York dynasties – symbolised by his adoption of the red and white Tudor Rose. His reign brings 85 years of civil war to an end. He marries Elizabeth, daughter of the Yorkist king Edward IV. Within a year they have a son, Arthur, later followed by another, Henry.

Catherine of Aragon's hand secured for Arthur, Prince of Wales, son of Henry VII

1496

The Age of Exploration

1500

Arthur marries Catherine

1501

Peace treaty with Scotland

1502

He arranges the marriage of his 13-year-old daughter Margaret to James IV to secure peace between England and Scotland. Although the peace doesn't last, the couple's great-grandson, James I of England and VI of Scotland, will unite the crowns of Scotland and England 100 years later.

Martin Luther posts his 95 Theses on the door of a church in Wittenberg, Germany, formally beginning the Protestant Reformation

1517

Henry VIII receives the title "Defender of the Faith" from Pope Leo X for his opposition to Luther

1521

William Tyndale expelled from the Catholic Church

1524

The New Testament of the Tyndale Bible (in English) is published in Worms, Germany.

1525

Court opens in England for divorce case

1529

Henry VIII marries Anne Boleyn at Whitehall

1533

Church of England is created

1534

Cromwell appoints Hugh Latimer, Edward Foxe, Nicholas Shaxton to episcopacy

1535

Anne Boleyn is executed

1536

Roman Inquisition founded

1542

The First Book of Common Prayer is introduced by Thomas Cranmer and the Act of Uniformity 1549

1549

Mary I is crowned queen

1553

Mary persuades Parliament to request that the Papal Legate, Cardinal Reginald Pole, obtain Papal absolution for England's separation from the Catholic Church.

1554

Elizabeth I’s long reign begins

1558

The Thirty-nine Articles, which complete establishment of the Anglican Church

1563

Royal Exchange sees trade flourish

1571

First English colony in America

1585

England wants to compete with Spain and Portugal, whose American colonies generate great wealth. Sir Walter Raleigh sets up a colony of about 100 men on the east coast of North America, which he names Virginia after Elizabeth I, ‘the Virgin Queen’. Although Raleigh's settlement fails after a year it marks the start of an effort by England to colonise North America. The first successful permanent settlement is founded in 1607.

Provisions for the poor

1601

End of the Tudor dynasty

1603

Elizabeth I dies aged 69. The Virgin Queen never married or had children. James VI of Scotland was her closest royal relative as they were both direct descendants of Henry VII. He is named King James I on the day of Elizabeth's death. One of Britain's greatest and most influential dynasties finally reaches its conclusion.

24 March James VI of Scotland crowned James I of England uniting the two kingdoms. James's accession meant that the three separate kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland were now united, for the first time, under a single monarch.

1603

August - James I ends the war with Spain The long war with Spain had continued intermittently for 20 years. England and Spain were now at peace for the next 50 years.

1604

James styles himself as King of Great Britain

1604

5 November - Gunpowder Plot to assassinate James I is discovered Guy Fawkes is thwarted when he tried to blow up Parliament.

1605

The Union Flag adopted as the National Flag

1606

First permanent British colony in North America. Jamestown in Virginia, founded by Captain John Smith

1607

23 April - William Shakespeare dies

1616

The Headright System

1618

The Headright System was set up by the London company in 1618 that gave 50 acres of land to colonists who paid their own way to Virginia, or paid the way for someone else

August - The Pilgrim Fathers set sail for New England from Plymouth, aboard the 'Mayflower' to escape religious persecution in England.

1620

The Pilgrims establish their own government

1620

Massachusetts Bay Colony

1620

War with Spain

1624

Virginia was made a royal colony

1624

14 May - Barbados comes under British control Captain John Powell landed in Barbados in 1625 and claimed the island as a British Caribbean colony.

1625

Delaware was settled

1638

The Quakers

1640

The Quakers, or Society of Friends, was a Protestant sect founded in England whose members believed that salvation was available to all people

3 November -'Long Parliament'

1640

Opens at Westminster With the Scottish army firmly established in Northern England and refusing to leave until its expenses had been paid, Charles I was again forced to summon a parliament. Many of the members of parliament voiced angry complaints against his policies.

22 August- Civil War begins as Charles I raises his standard at Nottingham

1642

Cromwell's conquest of Ireland

1649

England became a Republic for eleven years from 1649 - 1660

1649

Tea arrived in Britain

1652

Restoration of the Monarchy under King Charles II

1660

Carolina was settled

1663

New Jersey was settled

1664

The Plantation Duty Act

1673

Mary Stuart marries William of Orange

1677

Charles I's grandson
Mary Stuart was the elder daughter of Charles II's brother, James, Duke of York (James II). Her marriage in 1677 to the Dutch Protestant Prince William of Orange, himself the grandson of Charles I, strengthened William's claim to the English throne.

Salem Witchcraft Trials

1691

England and Scotland officially became one country - Great Britain

1707

England and Scotland officially became one country - Great Britain
The Scottish parliament was dissolved and England and Scotland became one country - Great Britain Act of Union between Scotland and England - part of the Union flag story

The Stamp Act and riots in the 13 Colonies

1765

Rhode Island abolishes slavery

1774

The American Revolution

1775

A document declaring the US to be independent of the British Crown was signed on July 4, 1776, by the congressional representatives of the 13 Colonies

The Declaration of Independence

1776

Abolishment of slave importation

1808

The Missouri Compromise

1820

Final abolition of Inquisition

1834

Lincoln-Douglas debates

1858

Abraham Lincoln elected President

1860

Enlisting black soldiers

1862

The Emancipation Proclamation

1863

Assassination of Lincoln

1865