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Declaration of Independence
The United States was founded on the Declaration of Independence, which also provided the basic framework for citizenship. But, the definition of citizenship in this new nation was narrow, mainly about white male landowners; women, slaves, and Native Americans were not included. This created the conditions for a nuanced and dynamic understanding of who was an American citizen. -
Constitution Ratification
The Three-Fifths Compromise, which counts slaves as three-fifths of a person, reflected the tensions surrounding citizenship and representation and highlighted the struggles and contradictions in defining citizenship during the early years of the Republic. Even though the Constitution was ratified in 1787, it left many questions about citizenship unanswered. -
Naturalization Act
The Naturalization Act of 1790 reflected the racial biases ingrained in the nation's early legal framework and explicitly limited citizenship to "free white persons," excluding people from other racial backgrounds. This legislation revealed a stark contrast to the inclusive ideals that the new nation espoused and demonstrated the exclusionary nature of early citizenship laws. -
Dred Scott Decision
African Americans' understanding of citizenship suffered a serious blow in 1857 when the Supreme Court ruled that slaves, former slaves, and their descendants were not citizens. This ruling solidified the notion that certain people were routinely denied the rights and benefits associated with American citizenship due to their race and status. -
14th Amendment
A major step forward in the definition of citizenship was the ratification of the 14th Amendment in 1868, which guaranteed equal protection under the law and granted citizenship to "all persons born or naturalized in the United States." However, at the outset, Native Americans were left out, highlighting the challenges in fully embracing an inclusive definition of citizenship. -
15th Amendment
After being ratified in 1870, the 15th Amendment protected voting rights by outlawing the denial of suffrage on the basis of race or color. However, discriminatory practices continued, including poll taxes and literacy tests, which prevented many African Americans from exercising their right to vote. The 15th Amendment served as a reminder of the continuous fight for equal citizenship rights. -
Chinese Exclusion Act
The first major attempt to limit immigration on the basis of nationality was the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, a discriminatory law that targeted Chinese laborers and reflected the growing fears and prejudices against certain immigrant groups. It also highlighted the close relationship between citizenship rights and immigration status and racial issues. -
19th Amendment
A significant step toward gender equality was the 1920 ratification of the 19th Amendment, which gave women the right to vote and expanded citizenship beyond gender boundaries. Despite this progress, obstacles to full gender equality remained, indicating the continuous fight for comprehensive citizenship rights. -
Indian Citizenship Act
The Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 recognized the rights and sovereignty of indigenous peoples and gave citizenship to all Native Americans born in the United States. Although this legislative change was a positive step toward inclusion, it did not completely address the marginalization and discrimination that Native American communities faced. -
Japanese Internment
Japanese Americans were subjected to horrific violations of their civil rights during World War II, even though they were citizens. The internment of Japanese Americans highlighted the difficulties marginalized groups faced in claiming their full rights as citizens and highlighted how brittle citizenship rights are in times of national emergency. -
Brown v. Board of Education
After decades of discriminatory practices, the Civil Rights Movement saw a turning point in 1954 when the Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education, a landmark case that ruled racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional. The ruling recognized the inherent inequality in segregated education and helped to reshape the concept of citizenship and equal rights for all Americans. -
Immigration and Nationality Act
Abolishing national origin quotas, the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 paved the way for a more diverse immigrant population and reflected a shift towards a more inclusive vision of citizenship that recognized the rights and contributions of individuals from a variety of cultural backgrounds. This legislative change represented a significant departure from prior discriminatory immigration policies. -
Loving v. Virginia
The landmark case of Loving v. Virginia, decided by the Supreme Court in 1967, marked a significant turning point in the ongoing fight for civil rights and the removal of racial and ethnic barriers. It upended laws that forbade interracial marriage and upheld the idea that a person's right to marry is an essential part of their citizenship. -
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Vietnam War Era
Protests, the Civil Rights Movement, and anti-war activism led to intense discussions over citizenship rights during the Vietnam War era. This period also saw a rise in calls for inclusivity and equality due to the increased awareness of social justice issues, and the evolving concept of citizenship became entwined with larger conversations about justice, equity, and the role of individuals in shaping the nation's identity. -
Immigration Reform and Control Act
The Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 was a complex law that reflected the ongoing struggle to strike a balance between national security concerns and the principles of fairness and inclusivity in defining American citizenship. It addressed issues related to unauthorized immigration and provided amnesty for certain undocumented immigrants while imposing sanctions on employers hiring unauthorized workers. -
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
As a commitment to inclusivity and a challenge to societal perceptions of who could fully engage as a citizen, the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 was a critical step towards expanding civil rights to people with disabilities. Its goal was to eradicate discrimination based on disability, acknowledging that equal participation in society is a fundamental aspect of citizenship. -
United States v. Windsor
United States v. Windsor, a 2013 Supreme Court decision that invalidated a major Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) provision and recognized same-sex marriages at the federal level, marked a major turning point toward LGBTQ+ equality by opposing discriminatory practices and broadening the definition of citizenship rights to include the right to marry. -
Black Lives Matter Protests
The massive demonstrations that broke out in 2020 in response to George Floyd's death highlighted the ongoing fight for civil rights and the necessity of comprehensive reforms to guarantee equal citizenship for all. They also gave new life to the Black Lives Matter movement and renewed attention to systemic racism and police brutality.