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Texas Annexation
Texas gained independence from Mexico before being annexed by the United States. After annexation, Mexicans living in Texas were granted U.S. citizenship. However, many Mexican Americans lost their land during the subsequent Mexican-American War. The unclear terms of land grants established during and after the war were often exploited, leading to widespread loss of land among Mexican Americans. -
California Gold Rush- Mexican and Latin Americans
Mexican and Latin Americans were pushed out of California as European immigrants and White Americans migrated westward. Discriminatory taxes targeting "foreign immigrants" and widespread white supremacy further forced their displacement. Labeling Mexican and Latin Americans as "foreign" reflected the racial prejudice of the time, as many White Americans refused to view them as true Americans. -
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Chinese Immigration
Approximately 300,000 Chinese immigrants arrived during this period, driven by political turmoil, famine, and economic hardships in southern China between 1840 and 1850. These challenges led to a significant influx of Chinese immigrants on the West Coast. -
Dred Scott v. Sandford
In the Dred Scott v. Sandford case, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that Dred Scott, an enslaved African American, was not a citizen and could not sue in federal court. The Court also decided that African Americans, whether free or enslaved, were not U.S. citizens under the Constitution. At that time, citizenship was considered limited to White Americans, and African Americans were denied the rights that came with citizenship. -
14th Amendment Ratified
Freed African American slaves were granted citizenship and equal protection under the law. There were exceptions to American-born citizenship under this Amendment. "Indians who were not taxed" and those who were "subject to any foreign power." -
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Mexican and Spanish Assimilation
Mexican and Spanish communities, both urban and rural, were increasingly overwhelmed by European immigrants. Hispanic culture was gradually replaced as communities were pressured to assimilate. European immigrants often exploited Mexican and Spanish Americans, offering low wages and disregarding or eroding their cultural traditions. -
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Gold Rush- Chinese Immigrants
Chinese immigrants formed communities known as "Chinatowns." However, Chinese women were largely barred from entering the country, reflecting discriminatory policies aimed at limiting the growth of Chinese communities in America. Tensions escalated as White Americans blamed Chinese immigrants for low wages and unemployment, sparking anti-Chinese riots in Los Angeles (1871) and San Francisco (1877). -
Mississippi Plan
Democrats took control of the House of Representatives and blocked any reconstruction proposals. The Mississippi Plan was threatening and violent tactics from the Democrats that prevented Republican supporters, often black, from voting. Although blacks were now citizens of the country, the ideologies of the South prevented them from exercising their rights. -
Expose and Talking Tours - Speeding Up Evolution of Native Americans
White Americans and Europeans viewed their cultures as superior and the pinnacle of development. Speaking tours by Native Americans and white reformers, along with exposés like those by Helen Hunt Jackson, influenced policymakers to accelerate the assimilation of Native Americans. -
Chinese Exclusion Act
Congress enacted the Chinese Exclusion Act, prohibiting the entry of Chinese laborers while permitting only teachers, students, merchants, tourists, and officials. This was the first significant restriction on immigration and excluded Asian immigrants from becoming naturalized citizens. Anti-Chinese violence soon erupted, including the Rock Springs massacre in 1885, which left many dead and forced Chinese communities to retreat to Chinatowns or return to China. -
American Protective Association
Discrimination was rampant, and it went beyond skin color or ethnicity, religious sects were targets as well. American Protective Association was established and considered itself an anti-catholic organization. Five hundred thousand members vowed not to hire Catholics and were successfully integrated into politics. APA did not last long and died out about 10 years later. -
Dawes Severalty Act
The Dawes Severalty Act aimed to assimilate Native Americans by dividing tribal lands into family allotments to promote independence. However, it clashed with traditional Native beliefs about land ownership. The Act was controversial because most reservation land was sold off by the government, and it failed to end reliance on federal support. -
"New Immigrants" vs. "Old Immigrants"
"New Immigrants" referred to Southern and Eastern Europeans, such as Italians, Slavs, and Eastern European Jews, who arrived in America during the 1890s. They were considered less desirable than the "Old Immigrants," who were primarily from Northwestern Europe and had immigrated before the 1890s. Even amongst other white European settlers, it was clear people were discriminatory to people outside of their immediate culture. -
Plessy v. Ferguson
In the Plessy v. Ferguson case, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that racial segregation was legal as long as the separate facilities for African Americans were "equal" to those for White Americans. This decision highlights the time when all Americans were not considered equal, although they had equal citizenship. Citizenship in the U.S. did not mean equality for ALL under the Constitution. Black Americans were still looked at as less than. -
U.S. v. Wong Kim Ark
The Supreme Court Ruled under Section 1 of the 14th Amendment that Wong was a United States because he was born in the U.S., even though his parents were not citizens. This was a landmark decision that established citizen rights to American born children of non-citizen immigrants. -
Japanese Immigrants
President Theodore Roosevelt halted immigration from Japanese laborers due to the pressure from other white laborers, especially Unionized white laborers. This highlighted the social disdain for Asians at the time, even at the highest level of government, discrimination was apparent.