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John Locke
An English philosopher, Locke argued that people have natural rights to life, liberty, and property. His ideas greatly influenced political thought, particularly in the development of democracy and the social contract. -
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Montesquieu
A French political philosopher, Montesquieu’s work The Spirit of the Laws proposed the separation of powers in government, which influenced the design of modern constitutions, including that of the U.S. -
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Voltaire
A French writer and philosopher, Voltaire championed civil liberties, freedom of speech, and religious tolerance. His satirical works, like Candide, criticized the Catholic Church and absolute monarchy. -
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Jean-Jacques Rousseau
A French philosopher, Rousseau emphasized the importance of democracy and the “general will” in his works like The Social Contract. His ideas on popular sovereignty and equality influenced revolutionary movements. -
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Denis Diderot
The French philosopher and editor of the Encyclopédie, Diderot compiled a comprehensive collection of knowledge, promoting reason, science, and secularism, challenging traditional religious and political authority. -
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Immanuel Kant
A German philosopher, Kant’s work Critique of Pure Reason advanced ideas about epistemology, metaphysics, and ethics, especially the concept of the “categorical imperative” and the idea that humans shape their own reality. -
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Maximilien Robespierre
A leader of the radical Jacobins, Robespierre was instrumental in the Reign of Terror. His government justified mass executions to protect the revolution. His eventual fall from power in July 1794 marked the end of the Reign of Terror and led to his execution. -
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Mary Wollstonecraft
An English advocate for women’s rights, Wollstonecraft's A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) called for gender equality and education for women, making her one of the first feminist philosophers. Her ideas contributed to later debates on women’s suffrage and equality. -
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Napoleon Bonaparte
Rising from the military ranks, Napoleon became Emperor of France in 1804. He implemented widespread reforms, such as the Napoleonic Code, and expanded French territory through military conquest. His reign significantly reshaped Europe, although it ended with his defeat at Waterloo. -
Estates-General
In May 1789, King Louis XVI called the Estates-General to address France’s financial crisis. The Third Estate (commoners) grew frustrated with the lack of representation and broke away to form the National Assembly, beginning the revolution and leading to the storming of the Bastille. -
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
Passed in August 1789, this revolutionary document proclaimed that all men are born free and equal in rights. It outlined fundamental human rights, including liberty, property, and the right to resist oppression, and served as a blueprint for democratic governance. -
Storming of the Bastille
The Bastille, a symbol of royal tyranny, was stormed by revolutionaries on July 14, 1789. This event marked the beginning of the Revolution and became a symbol of the people's struggle against oppressive power. -
Execution of Louis XVI
King Louis XVI was tried and found guilty of treason, leading to his execution by guillotine in January 1793. His death marked the end of the French monarchy and further radicalized the revolution. -
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Reign of Terror
Under the leadership of Robespierre and the Jacobins, the French Revolution entered its most violent phase. Thousands, including Queen Marie Antoinette and many political opponents, were executed during this period of intense fear and political repression. -
The Thermidorian Reaction
Following Robespierre's death, France saw a shift toward more moderate leadership. The Reign of Terror was curtailed, and the National Convention enacted reforms to stabilize the country. This period marked the collapse of radical revolutionary ideals in favor of a more conservative political approach. -
Coup of 18 Brumaire
On November 9, 1799 (18 Brumaire in the French Revolutionary calendar), Napoleon Bonaparte seized power in a coup d'état, overthrowing the French Directory. He established the Consulate and appointed himself First Consul, marking the beginning of his rule and the end of the French Revolution. -
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Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815)
A series of wars involving Napoleon's French Empire against various European coalitions, the Napoleonic Wars sought to expand French influence and control over Europe. Napoleon's military genius was evident in many battles, but his empire collapsed after defeats in Russia and at Waterloo. -
Battle of Austerlitz
Known as the "Battle of the Three Emperors," Napoleon’s forces decisively defeated the Russian and Austrian armies. This victory solidified his dominance in Europe, leading to the Treaty of Pressburg and the dissolution of the Third Coalition. -
Exile to Elba
After a series of defeats in the Napoleonic Wars, Napoleon was forced to abdicate in 1814 and was exiled to the island of Elba. However, he escaped in 1815, returning to France for the brief period known as the Hundred Days before his final defeat at Waterloo. -
Battle of Waterloo (1815)
Napoleon's final defeat at the Battle of Waterloo in June 1815, against an allied coalition led by the Duke of Wellington, ended his reign as Emperor of France. Afterward, he was exiled to Saint Helena, where he spent the last years of his life.