Early Modern Period

By Magdi ElBittar
  • 1400

    Renaissance begins in Italy.

    A period of cultural rebirth marked by advancements in art, literature, science, and philosophy, originating in Italy and spreading throughout Europe.
  • 1492

    Christopher Columbus reaches the Americas.

    Columbus's voyage initiated European exploration and colonization of the Americas.
  • 1498

    Vasco da Gama reaches India by sea, establishing a direct route from Europe.

    Da Gama's successful voyage opened up lucrative trade routes to the East, bypassing traditional land routes controlled by the Ottoman Empire.
  • 1517

    Martin Luther's Ninety-five Theses.

    Luther's critique of the Catholic Church's practices, particularly the sale of indulgences, sparked the Protestant Reformation and led to the formation of Protestant churches.
  • 1519

    Ferdinand Magellan's expedition circumnavigates the globe.

    Magellan's expedition proved the Earth was round and opened up new trade routes, despite Magellan himself not completing the voyage.
  • 1521

    Diet of Worms condemns Martin Luther.

    The Diet of Worms was an imperial assembly that declared Luther a heretic and outlaw, further escalating tensions between Protestants and Catholics.
  • 1532

    Francisco Pizarro captures Inca Empire in Peru.

    Pizarro's conquest of the Inca Empire led to Spanish colonization of South America.
  • 1534

    Henry VIII establishes the Church of England.

    Henry VIII's break from the Catholic Church led to the establishment of the Church of England, marking England's separation from papal authority.
  • 1540

    Sir Francis Drake Was Born

    (born c. 1540, Devonshire, England—died January 28, 1596, at sea, off Puerto Bello, Panama) was an English admiral who circumnavigated the globe (1577–80) and was the most renowned seaman of the Elizabethan Age.
  • 1543

    Nicolaus Copernicus publishes heliocentric model.

    Copernicus proposed that the Earth and other planets revolve around the Sun, challenging the geocentric model of the universe.
  • 1553

    Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire.

    The conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire and leading to the influx of Greek scholars into Western Europe, contributing to the Renaissance.
  • 1555

    Johannes Gutenberg invents the printing press.

    Gutenberg's invention revolutionized the spread of knowledge by making books more accessible, contributing to the dissemination of Renaissance ideas.
  • 1555

    Peace of Augsburg in the Holy Roman Empire.

    The Peace of Augsburg granted princes within the Holy Roman Empire the authority to choose between Catholicism and Lutheranism, formally recognizing the division of Christianity within the empire.
  • 1572

    Tycho Brahe observes a supernova

    Challenging Aristotelian cosmology. Brahe's observation of a supernova provided evidence against the Aristotelian belief in the immutability of the heavens.
  • 1577

    Sir Francis Drake completes circumnavigation, plundering Spanish ships.

    Drake's circumnavigation strengthened England's naval power and challenged Spanish dominance in the New World.
  • 1579

    Drake explores California coast.

    Drake explores California coast and claims it for England, naming it "New Albion." Drake's exploration laid claim to parts of the California coast for England.

  • Drake leads successful raid on Spanish-held Santo Domingo and Cartagena de Indias.

    Drake leads successful raid on Spanish-held Santo Domingo and Cartagena de Indias. Drake's raids weakened Spanish control in the Caribbean and South America.

  • Spanish Armada defeated by English fleet under Queen Elizabeth I.

    England's victory over the Spanish Armada marked a turning point in European naval power and solidified England's status as a maritime power.

  • European exploration of Africa's west coast begins.

    European exploration of Africa's west coast begins. European voyages along Africa's coast paved the way for later exploration and trade routes, marking the beginning of European expansion beyond their continent.

  • Sir Francis Drake Dies

  • Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon explores northern coast of Australia.

    Janszoon's voyage marked the first recorded European landing on Australian soil, paving the way for future exploration and colonization of the continent.

  • Galileo Galilei makes astronomical observations with the telescope.

    Galileo's observations, including the phases of Venus and the moons of Jupiter, supported the heliocentric model and revolutionized our understanding of the cosmos.

  • Isaac Newton publishes Principia Mathematica.

    Newton's work laid the foundation for classical mechanics and the law of universal gravitation, revolutionizing physics and mathematics.

  • Newton publishes "Opticks," exploring the nature of light and color.

    Newton's "Opticks" investigated the behavior of light and color through experiments with prisms, contributing to the understanding of optics.