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DNA is founded.
DNA is in the shape of a double helix with antiparallel nucleotide chains and specific base pairing. -
DNA replication is semi-conservative.
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Messenger RNA is the intermediate between DNA and protein.
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The genetic code is cracked by a number of researchers using RNA homopolymer and heteropolymer experiments as well as tRNA labeling experiments.
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The first restriction enzyme is purified by Hamilton Smith.
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Recombinant DNA is first constructed by Cohen and Boyer.
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DNA sequencing technology is developed by Fred Sanger.
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PCR is developed by Kary Mullis.
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Genome projects are begun.
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DNA microarrays are invented by Pat Brown and colleagues.
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Automated sequencing technology allows genome projects to accelerate.
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The first cloning of a mammal (Dolly the sheep) is performed by Ian Wilmut and colleagues, from the Roslin institute in Scotland.
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The Drosophila genome is completed. The Arabidopsis genome is completed. The human genome is reported to be completed.
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The sequence of the human genome is released, and the "post-genomic era" officially begins.
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Controversies continue over human and animal cloning, research on stem cells, and genetic modification of crops.