-
Dred Scott v. Sandford
Dred Scott and his wife sued for their freedom in the St. Louis Circuit Court on the grounds that they were living with their enslaver in a free territory (Fort Snelling in Wisconsin). The case eventually made it to the Supreme Court, which decided that slaves were not considered citizens of the United States and therefore were not protected by the federal law or the courts. This decision had major political implications regarding slavery for the rest of the country and fueled the Civil War. -
13th Amendment- Ratified
The 13th Amendment formally abolished slavery and involuntary servitude in the United States following the Emancipation Proclamation. Originally, the Senate passed the amendment but the House did not, forcing Lincoln to take further efforts to have it implemented. It was eventually passed on January 1st, 1865 and it took until December 6th, 1865 for three-fourths of states to ratify the amendment. Along with the 14th and 15th Amendments, the 13th Amendment greatly expanded civil rights. -
14th Amendment- Ratified
Along with the 13th and 15th amendments, the 14th Amendment was established after the Civil War. The amendment established citizenship, stating all people born or naturalized in the United States were citizens. This granted previously enslaved people citizenship. The 14th Amendment, specifically the due process clause, has been used by the Supreme Court over time to incorporate the federal Bill of Rights into state governments, expanding the power of federal law and further protecting rights. -
15th Amendment- Ratified
Enacted after the Civil War with the 13th and 14th amendments, the 15th Amendment granted the right to vote to African American men. However, this did not mean Black people were able to participate fully in society. White supremacy groups used threats and violence to prevent Black people from voting. Literacy tests began to be required before voting, which were designed to be failed, thus preventing a vote, and grandfather clauses were established to ensure the tests didn't limit white votes. -
Beginning of Jim Crow Era
The Jim Crow Era was a time in which racial segregation was enforced in the south, beginning with Reconstruction and lasting until the mid-1950s. Segregation laws were challenged, but Plessy. v. Ferguson (1896) ruled that "separate but equal" was legal. However, separate was never truly equal and this decision was challenged until it was eventually overturned by Brown v. BOE of Topeka, which outlawed segregation in schools and other public facilities. -
Plessy v. Ferguson
In the decision of Plessy v. Ferguson, the Supreme Court ruled that segregation on the basis of race was legal as long as accommodations for different races were separate but equal. Although the ruling that "separate but equal" made segregation legal, what ended up being separate was hardly ever equal. Facilities and resources for white people were much better funded and provided great opportunity than those for Black people. The decision would eventually be overturned, but not until the 1950s. -
19th Amendment- Ratified
After decades of protest, the 19th Amendment cemented the right of women to vote into U.S. law. Suffragettes had been fighting for this right since the mid-19th century with tactics such as picketing, silent vigils, and even hunger strikes. They were often beaten and jailed by opponents. The ratification of the 19th amendment unfortunately did not extend equally to all women. Women of color were still unable to vote and nearly all women faced oppression in forms other than voting limitations. -
Equal Rights Amendment- Proposed
The Equal Rights Amendment was proposed to Congress three years following the ratification of the 19th Amendment. It was an effort to secure full equality for women in America and sought to close the gender gap in terms of property ownership, divorce, employment, and other topics. Ultimately, the amendment failed to be ratified, but other legal victories for women followed the 19th amendment and, gradually, equality began to seem like it could become reality. -
Brown v. Board of Education
The decision in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas reversed the previous decision of Plessy v. Ferguson, which had permitted segregation on a "separate but equal" basis. Brown v. Board of Education is considered a catalyst of the Civil Rights Movement. The case outlawed segregation and integrated public facilities, specifically schools. After the decision, however, integration was faced with much resistance. Black people were often met with threats and violence, even in public spaces. -
Civil Rights Act of 1964
The Civil Rights Act, signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson, was considered the most significant civil rights legislation since the Reconstruction era following the Civil War. John F. Kennedy took action before his assassination to establish the equal rights of all U.S. citizens, regardless of race. It was extremely difficult to get the law passed in Congress. The act outlawed segregation and was followed by the establishment of Title VII to further protect civil rights of citizens. -
Beginning of Affirmative Action
Affirmative Action in the United States is an active effort to improve employment and educational opportunities for minority groups, promoting diversity in the workplace. Some typical criteria for Affirmative Action include race, sex/gender identity, disability, and age. Affirmative Action was initiated by president Lyndon B. Johnson after the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Businesses receiving federal funding are required to follow certain rules to prevent discrimination. -
Voting Rights Act of 1965
The Voting Rights Act signed into law by president Lyndon B. Johnson was established to outlaw unjust voting practices, such as literacy tests and poll taxes, that prevented Black people from voting, usually in southern states. Throughout 1964, many peaceful protests led by prominent civil rights leaders occurred, ultimately leading to the law being enacted. The law was challenged numerous times in court, but prevailed and made an instant impact on Black voter registration and participation. -
Reed v. Reed
In a case that would eventually make its way to the SCOTUS, a separated couple both wished to be the administrator of their son's estate, as he had passed away. Idaho Probate Code stated that men must be preferred to women in such circumstances, and Sally Reed fought back using the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment. The Court unanimously decided that the Idaho law was unconstitutional and that a choice in the case of the Reeds could not be determined based on sex alone. -
Regents of the University of California v. Bakke
Bakke, a white student, was denied acceptance to the University of California Medical School at Davis. The medical school reserved 16/100 entry spots for students of Color in an attempt to promote equality after a long history of unjust medical education. Bakke's test scores and
GPA were better than those of the 16 admitted students of Color and brought the case to court. The Court decided that if race was being used on a definite and exclusive basis in the admissions process, it was not legal. -
Bowers v. Hardwick
Hardwick was seen by a Georgia police officer engaging in consensual sodomy in his own home, which was criminalized in the state. The case went to the Supreme Court, which determined that sodomy was unprotected by the Constitution and states were allowed to outlaw it. This decision would eventually be overturned by Lawrence v. Texas, as it was a violation of the Due Process Clause of the 14th Amendment. -
Americans with Disabilities Act
President George H. W. Bush signed the Americans with Disabilities Act into law, which required reasonable accommodations to be made for people with disabilities in public spaces, such as handicap parking and wheelchair ramps. Though not immediately implemented, many states have seen significant improvements in the accessibility of public spaces for people with disabilities. The law is still being implemented in many ways today. -
Motor Voter Act
The National Voter Registration Act, also known as the Motor Voter Act, was signed into law by president Bill Clinton to advance voting rights. The law simplified the voter registration process, making states offer simpler processes to anyone who renewed a driver's license or applied for public assistance. The law has made it easier for disadvantaged populations to vote, thus promoting a fuller democracy in the country. -
Lawrence v. Texas
Texas police entered the apartment of Lawrence and found him engaging in a private and consensual sexual act with another man. They were arrested and convicted, as this was a violation of Texas law. However, the Court ruled in their favor. Ultimately overturning the decision of Bowers v. Hardwick, Lawrence v. Texas established that it was illegal to criminalize sexual conduct between people of the same sex by the Due Process Clause. -
Obergefell v. Hodges
A group of same-sex couples argued that their right to marriage was protected by the Due Process Clause and the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment. In a very close decision, the Supreme Court determined that same-sex marriage was protected by law. Opponents argued that since the matter was not addressed in the Constitution, it should be left up to the states. However, by the 14th Amendment, a states are required to license a marriage between two people of the same sex.