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Dred Scott v. Sanford
The Supreme Court ruled that people of African descent in the United States, whether free or enslaved, were not considered to be true American citizens and thus could not sue in federal court. The Court also ruled that the Missouri Compromise of 1820 was unconstitutional and by the Fifth Amendment, slavery could not be banned in the United States. This largely set back any chances for abolishing slavery in America in at the time. -
13th Amendment
The 13th Amendment was one of three 'Reconstruction Amendments' and officially banned slavery and involuntary servitude throughout the United States, except when utilized as a punishment or crime. Though slavery was abolished, inequality still remained, especially as sharecropping appeared to replace the slavery system. -
14th Amendment
As another 'Reconstruction Amendment,' the 14th Amendment guarantees "equal protection of the laws" to all citizens and grants citizenship to all born or naturalized in the United States. This amendment made all former slaves legal citizens, overturning the ruling in Dred Scott v. Sanford, and became the foundation for equality in America. -
15th Amendment
The 15th Amendment is the final "Reconstruction Amendment" and granted African American men the right to vote. Still, there were many obstacles for these men to vote, as many Southern states implemented poll taxes and literacy tests for voter eligibility. Also, many other minorities still lacked proper voting rights and protections. -
Poll Taxes
Following the 15th Amendment, many Southern states utilized poll taxes to block African American men from voting. Though poor white men often received exemptions through "Grandfather Clauses," these exemptions did not exist for African American men, who thus did not have a say in their elections. These restrictions were one of many in Southern states following the Civil War to ensure racial inequality persisted and poll taxes were not banned until the passage of the 24th Amendment in 1964. -
White Primaries
White primaries, similar to poll taxes and literary tests, were obstacles established in Southern states to prevent African American citizens from voting following the Civil War. White primaries specifically were primary elections in which only white voters could participate, limiting voting opportunities for non-white voters. -
Plessy v. Ferguson
Supreme Court case that established the idea of "separate but equal" treatment, which followed the 14th Amendment as long as the divided parties had equal facilities. However, facilities were rarely equal and largely disadvantaged Black citizens, especially in the South. -
19th Amendment
The 19th Amendment granted the women the right to vote after nearly a century of protest. Though the amendment directly granted freedoms, Black women still faced several obstacles while attempting to vote, such as continued poll taxes and local laws. -
Brown v. Board of Education
The Supreme Court case that declared segregation in schools was unconstitutional. The case began the fall of the Plessy v. Ferguson "separate but equal" ruling and faced heavy opposition when first implemented in schools. -
24th Amendment
The 24th Amendment officially abolished the poll tax in elections of public officials. The amendment thus expanded the voting pool, as many low-income citizens could now afford to elect representatives and have a say in the democracy. -
Civil Rights Act of 1964
The Act officially banned any discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin, including in hiring, firing, and promotion processes. This act would become the basis for more equality acts and civil rights legislation and was enacted due to the efforts of Martin Luther King Jr. and countless peaceful protestors dedicated to the expansion of equality to all in America. -
Voting Rights Act of 1965
The Act, inspired by the Civil Rights Act of 1964, officially banned all discriminatory voting practices, mainly employed in the South, that prevented many African Americans from voting, such as literary tests and local laws. The Act also expanded federal oversight of voter legislation and opened up investigations into poll taxes in state and local elections. -
Affirmative Action
Affirmative action is the policy of favoring individuals who have previously been discriminated against or are underrepresented. President Johnson began this policy by preventing employment discrimination with Executive Order 11246. -
Reed v. Reed
The Supreme Court ruled that the 14th Amendment's Equal Protection extended to gender discrimination, thus making differential treatment based on sex illegal. -
Equal Rights Amendment
The amendment, though passed by Congress, was never ratified and thus died, though it would have guaranteed legal gender equality for men and women. The amendment faced heavy opposition by those who believed it would eliminate prior protections established for women. -
Regents of the University of California v. Bakke
The Supreme Court case ruled that under the 14th Amendment's Equal Protection, the university's admissions criteria was unconstitutional, since it used race as a definite and exclusive basis for admission. The case tackled the idea of if affirmative action disadvantaged white Americans due to the preference of minorities, thus causing public protests leading up to and following the ruling. -
Bowers v. Hardwick
The Supreme Court ruled that the 14th Amendment's Equal Protection did not apply to same-sex couples and state laws criminalizing private sexual conduct between these couples were constitutional. -
Americans with Disabilities Act
The Act prohibits discrimination against people with disabilities in various sectors, including employment, transportation, communications, access to government facilities, and more. The Act has now created many public standards for ADA-Compliance in order to ensure equal treatment of disabled Americans. -
Motor Voter Act
The Act requires that states offer voter registration opportunities at state motor vehicle agencies. This makes voter registration much easier and voting in general more accessible for all Americans, especially those already applying for license applications or renewals. -
Lawrence v. Texas
Supreme Court case that made sodomy laws across the US unconstitutional and officially legalized same-sex private sexual activity legal under the Due Process clause. This case overturned the ruling in Bowers v. Hardwick, allowing more freedoms for same-sex couples in the US, but still not the right to marriage. -
Obergefell v. Hodges
The Supreme Course expanded on the ruling in Lawrence v. Texas and officially granted same-sex couples the right to marriage under the Equal Protection and Due Process clauses. The case officially legalized gay marriage across the US, ending the fight over the contested issue and guaranteeing basic freedoms to countess Americans.