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Period: 1509 to 1547
Henry VIII's reign
Was married 6 times :
- Catherine of Aragon (1509-1533) = Annulled/Divorced, mother of Mary I
- Anne Boleyn (1533-1536) = Beheaded/Executed, mother of Elizabeth I
- Jane Seymour (1536-1537) = Died, mother of Edward VI
- *Anne of Cleves (1540 Jan-July) = Divorced
- *Catherine Howard (1540-1542) = Beheaded/Executed
- *Catherine Parr (1543-1547) = Survived/Widowed *not important/main characters in British History He created the Church of England and paved the way for Prtestantism (Anglicanism) -
1517
The 95 Theses On the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences, Martin Luther
Summarize Luther's position on indulgences.
They were spread through Europe thanks to the invention of printing press, along with cheap pamphlets that criticized the Church's corruption (ex: image of a demon sitting on an indulgence).
This book caused Luther to be excommunicated in 1521 and declared heretic. -
1526
Translation of the Bible into vernacular
Protestants translated the Bible from latin to vernacular :
Luther did the German version in 1522, and William Tyndale did the English version in 1526 -> New Testament -
1534
Act of Supremacy : Henry
The King was made "Supreme Head of the Church of England" => equivalent of Pope
-> that's when schism really happened
-> King's Great Matter (divorce) had led England to break from Roman Catholic Church : the break with Rome was gradual and mostly a political move ; Henry did not support most of Protestant ideas. -
Period: 1547 to 1553
Edward VI's reign
Died from tuberculosis at 15.
Left the throne to his eldest sister Mary at a time when the country was bankrupt.
He introduced the Book of Common Prayers, along with the Protestant doctrine. -
1549
Book of Common Prayer
Published after the revision of the mass-book, it's a Protestant measure installed by Edward VI.
Its imposition (which replaced Latin with English services) led to rebellions (aka Prayer Book Rebellion or Western Rising) in Cornwall and Devon on the year it was published. -
Period: 1553 to
The Poor Laws - Poverty in Elizabethan England
Poor Laws were passed in 1553, 1597 and 1601:
- This established the idea that central and local governments had a responsibility for helping the poor.
- But it also established a distinction between the “deserving poor” and the “undeserving poor”.
- Very harsh laws against beggars and vagrants. This system remained in place until the 19th century.
=> One of the most famous legacy of the Queen’s reign. -
Period: 1553 to 1558
Mary I ("Bloody Mary") 's reign
Became the 1st Queen regnant at 37 years old, deeply Catholic and repealed the previous Protestant legislation.
Restored Cathilicism in 18 months (including Catholic mass) and persecuted Protestants.
Was married to the very Catholic Philip II of Spain, which made her ally with Spain in a war against France.
After she became ill, her death was greeted as she turned the nation against her ; even her husband did not seem to be sad and declared : "I feel a reasonable regret at her death..." -
Period: 1555 to 1558
Protestants Persecutions
Protestantism was confined to secrecy as "heretics" were burned on public places : over 200 Protestants went to the stake under Mary's reign.
Protestants were forced to leave the country and fled to the continent (ex : Switzerland where they were taught the teachings of Calvin) : they're called the "Marian exiles".
Mary's popularity declined very rapidly for many reasons, including these persecutions but also her marriage being opposed by many people in England. -
Period: 1558 to 1563
The marriage question and love affair : Elizabeth
1558 : Everyone thought she was soon to be married, because it was seen as a women's natural condition and she had a many suitors. 1559-1561 : Spring 1559 = rumors about a love affair with Robert Dudley 1st Earl of Leicester, the whole court thought it was finally leading to a wedding, but he was married althought his wife had breast cancer. William Cecil did not approve so spread a nasty rumor => huge scandal. 1563 : House of Lords begged her to marry "whomever you want, wherever you want" -
Period: 1558 to
Queen Elizabeth I's reign
Before dying, Mary asked Elizabeth to swear she would carry on with the Catholic reforms : she found a wise way out and said that she will "follow God's will".
Her priority was to pacify religious divisions in her country.
Instored the Second Reformation which defined the Church of England. -
1559
The Act of Uniformity : Elizabeth (Religious belief)
• every parish had to use the Book of Common Prayer
• people who did not attend an Anglican service were fined. -
1559
Act of Supremacy : Elizabeth (Church Organisation)
Properties of this act :
- it abolished the authority of the Pope ;
- it restored the authority of the Queen over the Church ;
- Elizabeth became “Supreme Governor of the Church of England”. -
Period: 1563 to 1571
The 39 articles of faith : Elizabeth (Doctrine)
• stated the doctrine (religious belief) of the Church
• 3 important changes : a new ecclesiology (conception of the Church) / a new doctrine of Salvation / a new definition of sacraments and of the mass
• still in use today -
1569
The Northern Rebellion : one of the reasons for Catholics persecutions
Rebellions against religious reforms arose as an attempt to replace Queen Elizabeth by Mary, Queen of Scots, as she was a triple threat to Elizabeth :
- she was her cousin and legitimate heir ;
- her closeness to France and Spain endangered the English Kingdom ;
- to catholics, she represented hope for a return back to Roman Catholicism.
The revolt was led by the Earls of Westmorland and Northumberland.
It counted 6000 insurgents but was crushed. -
1570
Excommunication of Elizabeth I : papal bull “Regnans in Excelsis”, anther reason for the Catholics persecutions
Council of Trent (1545-63) = the symbol of Counter Reformation
Pope Pius V's hostility to the Elizabethan religious settlement had been growing for a while, until he issued the papal bull in which he called her "The so-called Queen" and "a heretic favouring heretics": he went as far as almost giving Catholics licence to kill her.
Until this moment, small secret communities of Catholics were tolerated even though the country was mainly Protestant ; but from now on they were persecuted. -
1571
The Treason Act : response to the Pope's declaration
Made it treason for anyone to say that Elizabeth was not the true Queen of England and Wales.
The Pope and the Catholics believed she was not the legitimate heir because she was Anne Boleyn's daughter, so she was an illegitimate child and had no right to the throne.
To Catholics, Mary Stuart was the legitimate heir and many plots against Elizabeth included replacing her by Mary Stuart. -
1581
The Repression of Catholics : the 1581 Act
Aka "Act to retain the Queen's Majesty's subjects in their due Obedience" :
- it provided for the death penalty for any person converting or already convered to Catholicism
- it was now forbidden to participate or celebrate the Catholic mass
- Anglican services were compulsory : £20 per month fine if you did not attend => 163 people killed during repression in 26 years (1577-1603) -
Period: 1581 to
The Construction of the Elizabethan Myth
Control of the royal portraits: for the Queen, they were a crucial means of propaganda so she gave rules (1581, 1596) about important characteristics to respect in the paintings. She's also represented on medals, her courtiers' rings and necklaces ; moreover she did parades and royal progresses in the country to stay close to her people. The Elizabethan Age as the Golden Age : indeed, it was the age of English Renaissance in arts ; this era was also an age of
exploration and expansion. -
The Babington plot
It was the key event to execute the threat Mary Stuart was.
A group of young Catholics were plotting against Elizabeth in order to replace her on the throne by Mary Stuart, but their strategies were discovered by Francis Walsingham (spymaster) when he managed to decipher a coded letter between Marie Stuart and this group. -
Execution of Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots
Daughter of King James V of Scotland, raised in France as a Catholic and widow of French King Francis II.
Involved in a civil war in Scotland in 1568, so she had to flee to England : Elizabeth granted her shelter but kept her in prison for 19 years.
She was imprisoned because of the triple threat she represented to Elizabeth.
Mary was convicted for complicity and sentenced to death.
She was executed in 1587 in Fotheringham Castle, wearing a bright red dress, the colour of Catholic martyrs. -
The Defeat of the "Invincible" Spanish Armada
Background :
Philip II, Catholic King of Spain supported several plots against Elizabeth, so she helped the Dutch Revolt against Spain.
As a result, the King of Spain attempted to invade England : but it was a complete defeat, England was victorious. Reasons for victory :
A material advantage = a new modern fleet of 800 ships, invention of a new strategy battle (line battle), use of the Dutch strategy of incendiary ships.
A human advantage = many sailors were recruited before the it started. -
Death of the Virgin Queen : a new monarch from the House of Stuart
When Elizabeth I died (at the age of 69), she had secured both Protestantism and the position of England in the world. Her heir was the son of her cousin Mary Queen of Scots (Mary Stuart), who was executed by the Virgin Queen a few years earlier.
James VI of Scotland became James I of England.
This is start of the first Stuart Era. His rise to the British throne gave hope to both Catholics and Puritans as they both thought he would change Elizabeth's religious set of laws : both were wrong. -
Period: to
James I's reign : the King who led the country to Civil wars
He held Calvinist views and believed he could make a piece between Catholic and Protestant powers abroad. From the day he was appointed King of England, they had always been tensions between James and the Parliament, and for many reasons :
-he deceived both English Catholics and Protestants ;
-he had a lot of financial difficulties (inherited debt, extravagance) ;
-the 30 years' war put him and the country in a bad position. -
The Gunpowder Plot
When James I inherited the throne, Catholics hoped for a return to the Roman Catholic Church in the country since he was the son of Mary Stuart ; but they got disappointed quickly as he was a Protestant King.
So a conspiracy was devised by a small group of Catholics to blow up the Parliament and kill the King : the plan was to hide 36 barrels of powder under the room of the parliament, in the cellar, and light them up during a meeting, a bunch of other stuff to emphasize the explosion. -
King James' Bible
When James I inherited the throne, Puritans asked for the church to be purified of the last traces of catholic doctrines and rites ; but the King confirmed the Elizabethan status quo.
Instead, the only important change instored was a new english translation of the Bible (the King James’ Bible), published in 1611. -
Period: to
Charles I's reign : the development of the crisis
Even with James' financial issues, Parliament financed the war on Spain but it would be one for the next king to lead as James died in 1625 : that's how Charles I inherited a war and tensions with the Parliament. He firmly believed in divine right of kings, interpreted all criticism as a challenge to his authority, and he was protestant. To sum up : he dissolved a lot of Parliaments, and he even declared war against his lattest on 22 August 1642 ; that's how the Civil Wars began. -
The Petition of Rights
After the formation of a new Parliament, the MPs assembled their complaints in a petition called "The Petition of Rights".
They wanted the King to recognise the illegality of some of his actions (extra-parliamentary taxation, billeting, martial law, imprisonment without trial) ; and they also wanted him to recognise that there were limits to his powers.
Charles I reluctantly signed it but was furious, and as MPs were discussing impeaching Lord Buckingham (again), he suspended Parliament seating. -
The Three Resolutions
In the next parliamentary session in january 1629, the MPs passed this text which declared that whoever tried to bring in « Popery or Arminianism » or to alter the protestant forms of the Church of England was an enemy of the kingdom ; as well as anyone advising the King to collect custom duties without Parliament’s consent.
It was an act of open defiance, so Charles I imprisoned these MPs and dissolved Parliament ; he declared there would be no more Parliaments. -
Period: to
The "Personal Rule"
After dissolving the Parliament, Charles I declared there would be no more parliaments: it's the start of the « Personal Rule ».
It lasted 11 years during which the King ruled without calling a Parliament, whig historians called it « the Eleven Years Tyranny ».
Charles called a Parliament in 1640, and therefore put an end to the "Personal Rule", as he was needing money to fight the Scots who were rebelling and preparing for an invasion. -
The Grand Remonstrance
It was an important document voted by Parliament after heated debates. It summarized all the wrong doing of Charles I and concluded on « revolutionary » demands :
-the right of the house of commons to choose the king’s minsiters ;
-the right for the Parliament to control any army sent to Ireland ;
-the right for Parliament to reform the Church. It was proposed by John Pym and 4 others MPs : the King will later try to arrest them because he believed they comploting against the Queen. -
Period: to
The Irish Rebellion : another war caused by these tensions
An armed revolt broke out in Ireland, the cause :
-James I (Charles’ father) had implemented a plantation policy there, sending English and Scottish Protestant colonists to Ireland, therefore taking the lands of Irish Catholics.
Irish Catholics rebels rose up against Protestant settlers, which led to the massacre of 3 000 to 4 000 Protestants.
There were a lot of rumours : Irish atrocities, 200 000 protestants massacred ; it fuelled the anti-Catholic sentiment in England. -
The Militia Act or Ordinance
With the rebellion in Ireland, Charles needed an army to stop the uprising. But because of the many tensions with the Parliament, the MPs were scared that the King would use the army against them, so they passed the Militia Act.
Its purpose was that the army should be placed under the control of the general appointed by Parliament, therefore taking away the King’s ability to appoint whoever he wanted. -
Period: to
The Commonwealth
The regicide was welcomed with shock and dismay in England and Europe (reinforced by royalist propaganda describing the king as a martyr) => Royalist revolts (in support of monarchy) in Ireland and Scotland brutally repressed by Cromwell.
The Rump Parliament increased repression of internal critics radical sects.
The end of the commonwealth : problems with the Rump Parliament => 20 april 1653, Cromwell dissolved it, dismissed the MPs.
16 dec 1653 : end of Commonwealth and start of protectorate. -
The Execution of Charles I
After his defeat in the second Civil War, Charles was arrested by the Parliament and, after Colonel Pride's purge (December 1648), the Rump Parliament formed by the remaining MPs decided to put the King on trial for high treason against the people of England.
King Charles I was executed on 30 January 1649. The monarchy and House of Lords were abolished in March 1649, and England was declared a Commonwealth, or a republic. -
The Instrument of Government
=> England’s first and only written constitution. It explains the political system and imposes a religious toleration towards all religions except Roman Catholics.
Was written during Cromwell's Protectorate. -
Period: to
The Cromwellian Protectorate
=> the protectorate was a military dictatorship, similar to a monarchy without a king.
Cromwell appointed lord protector (refused title of king) ; Parliaments of 460 MPs elected every 3 years ; Council of State composed of 13 to 21 members who served for life. Cromwell died in 1658, his son Richard became lord protector but resigned after 6 months.
This led to a period of anarchy => 7 governments in less than a year !
People longed for a return to order, increasing support monarchy. -
The end of the Protectorate
Charles II (Charles I's son) was proclaimed king of Scotland after his father’s execution, raised a Scottish army to invade England.
The Royalist force uprising he led was crushed in 1651 by Cromwell => Charles escaped. 1660: Charles II issued the Declaration of Breda.
It promised : a general amnesty (pardon), to continue religious toleration, and to share power with Parliament
…all in return for the restoration of monarchy. => King restored 29 May 1660 = The Restoration. -
Period: to
Charles II's reign
=> Faced with domestic and foreign disasters :
-The 2nd Anglo Dutch war,
-1665 outbreak of Plague,
-1666 Great Fire of London. => Increasing hostility towards Charles II and his court (drunkenness, mistresses) : nicknamed the “merry monarch”. He was Protestant like his father, but his brother James II was Catholic which caused a huge polemic when years passed by and the King still didn't have any other heir. -
The act of uniformity and the Restoration
Charles II didn't give the pardon he promised, it caused new tensions to rise between him and the Parliament which is now permanent (meeting every 3 years at least and representing the people). However, they passed a few laws together. The Clarendon code : a series of laws passed during the first 5 years of Restoration. The act of uniformity 1662: all ministers had to swear to conform to the Book of Common Prayer. -
Period: to
The 1678-1681 Political crisis
The Popish Plot 1678 :
-Rumour of a plot organised by the French to murder Charles II and replace him by his Catholic brother James II.
=> Fear: James as king would implement pro-Catholic politics and might try to restore absolute monarchy, threatening Parliament. The Exclusion crisis, 1679-1681 :
-Parliament attempted to debar James II from the succession to the English throne.
=> Charles’ reaction: dissolving the Parliament. -
Period: to
James II's reign
When James II sat on the throne, deep seated fear of Catholic absolutism, especially when he tried to enforce toleration of Catholic worship (Parliament forced him to back down). Important tensions :
Many were afraid of a reversal to the dark times of the civil wars.
Hope : James was old and as he didn’t have a male heir, his protestant daughter Mary would soon succeed him (married to William of Orange).
=> Problem : 1688, James’ second wife gave birth to a son = Crisis, Glorious Revolution. -
The Glorious Revolution
In 1688, Parliament invited the King’s son in law (the Dutch William of Orange) to invade England and seize the crown.
He landed with an army of 15 000 men and met no resistance.
James’ army disintegrated, officers deserted, so he fled to France and William became King William III. -> Why is it called "Glorious" ? Because it didn't shed any blood, in contrast with the civil wars, liberties of English subjects were reinforced and it created a stable political system. -
Period: to
William III and Mary II's reign : the end of the House of Stuart
They became joint monarchs after their victory on the Glorious Revolution. They ruled over Great Britain from the moment they dislodged James II from the throne (1688) to William's death in 1702, since Mary died before him (1694). He was succeeded by his wife's sister, Anne (last Stuart monarch), then by George I (in 1714) = it's the start of the Hanoverian House. -
A Constitutional Monarchy : the Bill of Rights (1689)
William and Mary became joint monarchs, they promised to accept Parliament’s authority and add many new limits to the monarchs’ powers. Constitutional Monarchy
-> the King acts as head of state but his powers are limited by law (he does not hold absolute power). The Bill of Rights limited the monarch’s power for the first time.
It : listed James' misdeeds, fixed limitations on the sovereign’s powers, set out the rights of Parliament, set out basic civil rights, and was a key political text. -
The Act of Settlement (1701)
Problem : King William III and Mary II had no surviving children and all the potential Stuart successors were Catholic.
Solution : the 1701 Act of Settlement ensured a Protestant succession, ignoring dozens of Catholic heirs.
Successors would be Hanoverian descendants of James I
This text has a key role in the formation of the Kingdom of Great Britain.
=> It put an end to the 16th and 17th quarrel between King and Parliament. A new balance of powers in favour of Parliament. -
Act of Union (1707) : the first one, between England and Scotland
Creation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain : England (and Wales) and Scotland, old dream of James I.
Scotland had being occupied under Cromwell but regained control of its own Parliament under Restoration.
Still threat of French invasion or rising in favour of James II. => Under Queen Anne, Act of Union:
a single kingdom, Scotland lost its parliament but gained 45 seats in the House of Commons and 16 seats in the House of Lords, finally Scotland kept its Presbyterian church and own laws.
