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Galen of Pergamum
Galen was one of the greatest ancient medical practitioners, born in Pergamum, Turkey. His most important contributions were in anatomy, he dissected and observed all kinds of animals, sometimes mistakenly applying what he saw to the human body. His descriptions of bones and muscle, the first of its kind, observing that muscles work in contracting pairs, describing the heart valves and structural differences between arteries and veins.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Galen-of-Pergamum -
Evolution by Means of Acquired Characteristics
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck was first to develop a scientific hypothesis about evolution and recognize that species adapt physically to their environment to continue life. http://necsi.edu/projects/evolution/lamarck/lamarck/lamarck_lamarck.html -
The Voyage of the HMS Beagle
HMS Beagle set sail on its second surveying voyage, with Robert FitzRoy as captain with the objective to sail South America with a young 22-year old Charles Darwin as the ship’s naturalist. http://www.hmsbeagleproject.org/second-voyage/ -
The Origin of Species
The Origin of Species By Means of Natural Selection written by Charles Darwin; this book was a discovery of how species evolve physically to adapt to their environment for survival and how those traits are passed down generationally. http://www.historic-uk.com/CultureUK/Charles-Darwin-On-Origin-of-Species/ -
The Germ Theory of Disease
Written by Louis Pasteur know as the "Greatest biologist of all time" for his discovery of "diseases" in wine and beer. Correlating the "similarities between the diseases of animals or man and the diseases of beer and wine." He also created the process of killing the germs by inventing pasteurization. http://science.jrank.org/pages/3035/Germ-Theory.html -
Inheritance of Traits in Pea Plants
Austrian monk Gregor Mendel published his research with pea plants, the basic principles of heredity would also apply to people and other animals because the mechanisms of heredity are the same for all life.
https://www2.palomar.edu/anthro/mendel/mendel_1.htm -
Pasteur Refutes Spontaneous Generation
Louis Pasteur conducted an experiment to prove the life does not only exist by sexual reproduction. He placed broth in flasks that would not allow dust particles to enter unless they were broken. Once broken the flask created living organism's "spores". https://worldhistoryproject.org/1876/louis-pasteur-disproves-the-doctrine-of-spontaneous-generation -
Plasmodium Falciparum
Discovered by Alphonse Laveran; Plasmodium malariae is a malaria parasite that causes a disease; Plasmodium falciparum is a unicelluar protozoan parasite of humans and the deadliest species of Plasmodium. This disease is transferred by mosquitos, following introduction into the bloodstream, the sporozoites rapidly invade the liver within an hour, where, within a parenchymal cell, the parasite matures in approximately 15 days.
http://cmr.asm.org/content/20/4/579.full -
Hardy-Weinberg Equation
G. H. Hardy and Wilhelm Weinberg created a mathematical equation that can be used to calculate the genetic variation of a population, a basic principle of population genetics. Which states that the amount of genetic variation will remain constant from one generation to the next in the absence of disturbing factors. The Hardy-Weinberg equation is expressed as: p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 http://www.nature.com/scitable/definition/Hardy-Weinberg-equation-299 -
T. Hunt Morgan Discovers Sex-Linkage
Thomas Hunt Morgan, an embryologist, after breeding millions of fruit flies in his laboratory noticed one fruit fly with a distinctive characteristic: white eyes instead of red. Isolating the specimens from red vs white-eyed flies he noticed the males were all white-eyed. Therefore resulting in the discovery linkage of sex related characteristics.
http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/resources/timeline/1910_Morgan.php -
The Bohr Model of Atom Structure
Niels Bohr, a physicist, created the first model of an atom, it resembled the solar system. As an atom is very small, but yet a positively charged nucleus contains proton and neutron surrounded by negatively charged electrons. This negatively charged electrons travel in circular orbits around the nucleolus.
http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/glossary/bohr_atom.html -
The Process of Transformation by Griffith
Frederick Griffith, discovered gene transfer after he injected mice with 2 different bacteria, R strain=they survived; S strain=death. Using heat to kill the S strain, he injected mice with the dead bacteria=survived. Injected dead S strain and live R strain=death. The R does not have a polysaccharide covering, a rough surface, it could be destroyed by the host's immune system. 1st generation mice=death, not subsequent generations. http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/Transformation_Experiment.html -
DNA was determined to be the molecule that carries the genetic code
Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod and Maclyn McCarty helped demonstrate the role of DNA as the carrier of genetic information by infecting mice with two strains of bacteria, the S strain, had smooth walls and the R strain, had rough walls.By destroying RNA and DNA with both strains present, it was determined that the R bacteria remained rough therefore DNA was the transforming principle.
https://www.yourgenome.org/stories/revealing-dna-as-the-molecule-of-life -
DNA and X-Ray Crystallography and Develops “Image 51”
Rosalind Franklin, a research associate at King's College London used her expertise of X-ray diffraction techniques on DNA fibers to discover two forms of DNA, a dry "A" form and a wet "B" form. One of their X-ray diffraction pictures of the "B" form of DNA is known as Image 51.
https://www.biography.com/people/rosalind-franklin-9301344 -
Hershey-Chase Experiments
Alfred Hershey and his assistant Martha Chase discovered the full DNA of a virus. The proved that a viral infection would remain unaffected while the protein shell from a bacterial cell was removed aka the blender experiment.
https://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=39044 -
Double Helix Model of DNA Structure
James Watson and Francis Crick established the structure of DNA. The double-stranded molecule could both produce exact copies of itself and carry genetic instructions. https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/SC/Views/Exhibit/narrative/doublehelix.html -
DNA Replication
Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl's experiments on the replication of DNA, it served as templates for their own replication meaning they took 3 generations of DNA and experimented on them using E. coli grown in 15N nitrogen(heavy isotope), then switching to 14N nitrogen(light)and after one, two,or three generations of samples of DNA, mixed with cesium chloride and separate heavy and light DNA, results showed that generational y DNA replicated.
http://www.pnas.org/content/101/52/17895.long -
Nirenberg Cracks the Genetic Code
Marshall Nirenberg, discovered the first "triplet" sequence of three bases of DNA that codes for one of the twenty amino acids that serve as the building blocks of proteins. Within five years, the entire genetic code was deciphered.
http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/resources/timeline/1961_Nirenberg -
Endosymbiosis
Proposed by Lynn Margulis, the Endosymbiosis Theory proposed that prokaryotic cells originated as eukaryotic cells. She looked at all the data about prokaryotes, eukaryotes, and organelles and proposed that the similarities between prokaryotes and organelles, together with their appearance in the fossil record, could best be explained by "endo-symbiosis".
https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/history_24 -
Apollo 11 Lands on the Moon
Apollo 11 was the first mission to land on the Moon by astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin. Armstrong and Aldrin were the first to set foot on the Moon. https://airandspace.si.edu/explore-and-learn/topics/apollo/apollo-program/landing-missions/apollo11.cfm -
Spliceosomes Discovered
Paul Berg, a scientist working with virus' began an experiment by inserting foreign genes into a virus to carry into new cells with the goal of removing the mutated DNA that the virus created. This involved splicing "cutting" a bit of the DNA of the bacterial virus into the DNA and filling those "loops" cuts with various enzymes. Berg’s gene-splicing experiment resulted in the first man-made recombined DNA (rDNA)
https://www.chemheritage.org/historical-profile/paul-berg -
Hydrothermal Ocean Vents Discovered
Discovered by geologist near Galapagos in 1977, researchers found large communities that lived near the hot water of hydrothermal vents. Prior to this time it was thought that there were few species that could survive in the deep-sea near any type of volcanic activity and the resulting hot water.
http://ocean.si.edu/ocean-videos/hydrothermal-vent-creatures -
The Sanger Technique is developed
Frederick Sanger developed the “rapid DNA sequencing” technique, now known as the Sanger method. He discovered the order in which the of bases in a strand of DNA were. https://unlockinglifescode.org/timeline/11 -
Polymerase Chain Reaction
Invented by Kary B. Mullis, Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) allowed scientists to make millions of copies of a sample of DNA. PCR involves the use of a small sample of DNA and RNA to be amplified over a million-fold in size. This allows for a single copy of a gene or part of a gene in cells, whether it be from blood, cultured cells, tissue biopsies, chromosomes, or any other biological system that contains DNA or RNA. http://siarchives.si.edu/research/videohistory_catalog9577.html -
The Innocence Project
Founded by Barry Scheck and Peter Neufeld, The Innocence Project is a non-profit legal organization uses DNA testing to free wrongly convicted people. Reforming the criminal justice system to prevent future injustices.
https://www.innocenceproject.org/about/ -
Dolly, the cloned sheep
Dolly, a Finn Dorset sheep, was born on July 5th, 1996, at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh, Scotland. Dolly was the world's first mammal to be cloned from an adult cell.
https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/dolly_the_sheep.htm -
Sahelanthropus Tchadensis
A fossil discovered to have lived 6 - 7 million years ago reflecting the evolution between human & apes due to the brow ridge on the skull. http://efossils.org/species/sahelanthropus-tchadensis -
Human Genome
In 2003 the human genome was completely sequenced since its first discovery in 1988, it's completion proved that DNA molecules are made of two twisting, paired strands. The strands are made of nucleotide bases, the human genome contains 3 billion of these base pairs, which reside in the 23 pairs of chromosomes within the nucleus of all our cells.
https://www.genome.gov/11006943/human-genome-project-completion-frequently-asked-questions/ -
Richard L Bible executed
Richard L Bible was found guilty of kidnap, rape and murder of 9 year old Jennifer Wilson in one of the first DNA analysis cases. The blood smeared on a shirt worn by Bible at his arrest was tested and found to be the blood of Jennifer.
https://deathpenaltynews.blogspot.com/2011/06/arizona-executes-richard-lynn-bible.html -
CRISPr/CAS 9
Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeat (CRISPR) - Cas9 is a method that is used to remove, add, alter or replace sections of DNA by guiding synthetic RNA. Also knowns as "gene editing".
https://motherboard.vice.com/en_us/article/bmjaav/what-is-crisprcas9-and-why-is-it-suddenly-everywhere
