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-died 3 weeks after Eisenhower inauguration-Ike elected as "Cold Warrior", "roll back communism"
-USA priorities were security + containment of Communism, reduce military expenditure for domestic reasons, + conciliatory approach to other
-Eisenhower speech in April 1953-chance for peace-ended war in Korea + reduced military spending by $10 million by 1956 -
-died March 1953
-relations improved between USSR + USA
-collective leadership-5 men, political rivals who all want power
-Khruschev head of USSR by 1958
-Khruschev determined to improve living standards in USSR + dismantle police state-needed more relaxed international climate, esp w/ arms -
-food shortages + flood of refugees to W Ger
-Soviets clung to unified socialist Ger
-Ulbricht E Ger Chancellor ordered to slow forced programme of Sovietisation-concessions too little too late
-16 June strikes + riots-wanted to introduce economic reforms, concessions to farmers + reduce taxes
-Ulb withdrew some concessions 14 June
-intervention of Soviet troops to restore order by 17 June backed by tanks
-125 dead, 19 in E Ger, industrial areas
-prompted USSR to make firm commitment to GDR -
-soviet development of hydrogen bomb increased confidence
-arms expenditure that isn't nuclear decreased
-alarm at more aggressive attitude of new American regime w/ new Secretary of State Dulles-Churchill invited new Soviet leadership to a meeting of world powers in Berlin Jan 1954 -
-achieved withdrawal of Fr, Br + USA troops from Austria May 1955 + became neutral state
-Geneva Conf July 1955 agreed to uphold existing political status quo
-Sept USSR established diplomatic relations w/ GFR
-period of relative tranquility-"everything's booming but the guns"-gaining little ground against USSR in Cold War
-Eis doubt how genuine Khru's peaceful coexistence was
-"New Look" Defence Policy-Operation Solarium, full review of foreign policy options -
-National security go beyond geographical territory of USA-defend democratic + capitalist values
-balance between defence + other spending priorities-cut conventional forces + focus on developing nuclear arsenal-"More bang for the buck"
-thought nuclear force would be deterrent to Sov aggression-research + development priority
-CIA important-surveillance + covert missions
-contrary to USA expectations, EU did not develop own forces
-1957 USSR own ICBM + launched Sputnik 1-fear of missile gap -
-destalinisation
-peaceful co-existence
-security
-boost + revitalise economy -
-containment
-security -
-NATO established as defensive alliance in 1949-another reason to distrust intentions of USA-threatening process
-May 1955 West Germany joined NATO-deepened division of EU-eradicted long Soviet hope of friendly united German state-reactive mechanism w/ Warsaw + tightening of Soviet grip over E Ger -
-GDR eventually joined in Jan 1956
-Warsaw committed members to consult on issues of mutual interest + give all necessary assistance in event of an attack
-Treaty signed fo political rather than military reasons as a response to FRG's entry to NATO
-still kept option of neutral GER- "if a general EU treaty of collective security signed, Warsaw would lapse" -
-BR, Fr, USA + USSR met for first time since Potsdam-more positive climate
-death of Stalin + Khru's aim of relaxed international climate eased tensions
-Détente-relaxed + improved relationships
-aim of discussing reunifications of Ger, disarmament,security of EU + relationships w/ E + W -
-no agreement reached over Ger
-Khru's proposal to disband NATO + Warsaw pact rejected by Pres Eisenhower-NATO vital for security
-Soviet leader rejected Eisenhower's "open skies policy"-limitations on military powers + surveillance flights over territory-West could spy on USSR
-acceptance of status quo + understanding that neither side wanted war-atmosphere of friendship- SPIRIT OF GENEVA
-agreed to meet in Paris 1960 -
-primary aim of USSR revitalise economy-peaceful co-existence massive implications in FP-cuts in defence budget-hardliners in Kremlin objected 20% reduction of size of Red Army
-Malenkov "New Course"-diplomatic channels w/ West-end to Korean War
-removal of Soviet military bases in Finland
-signing of 1955 Austrian Treaty-reestablished Austria as independent state
-reversed Stalin's view that war inevitable- "capitalism + communism could exist side by side w/out military conflict
-false dawn -
-Containment-USA forces expanded, conventional rose by 1m 1950-3, nuclear even more
-US Strategic Air Command had 1735 bombers 1960-capacity to launch on Sov targets
-neither Br/USA prepared to initiate actions that could lead to war-prepared for defence
-Unity of W Govs-Eis + W Ger Chancellor disquiet abt Br + Fr seeking accommodation in USSR, thought Khru would take willing to compromise as weakness to exploit
-fall outs over Suez
-disapproved over Br PM visit to Moscow July 1959 -
-Hungarian calls for Western help-powers didn't intervene
-expressed contempt for USSR
-Hungary dashed hopes of thaw in relations-policy not changed
-thought risk of nuclear war too big to give Hungarians any assistance-Eis preoccupied w/ re-election
-US weakened by attempts of Br + Fr to consolidate control over Middle-East=Suez canal
-prevented Western unity againsts Soviets
-Arms race new levels-ICBMs -
-thaw in E/W relations w/Stalin-death provided opportunity for easing of relations
-"no disputed or unresolved question which cannot be settled by mutual agreement of interested court-applies to relations w/ all states"-Malenkov to Supreme Soviet court
-Spirit of Geneva-agreed on need for greater co-operations rather than confrontation
-1955 Khru travelled to Belgrade to apologise to Tito
-Khru's secret speech at 20th Congress attacked Stalin-"cult of personality"
-visit to Br-peaceful co-exist -
-20th Party Congress Khru hinted at more tolerant response-"imposing one's opinions on ways + forms of socialist development is alien to both"
-Poznan factory staged protests over pay + conditions + stormed Communist Party headquarters
-Battle for Poznan-popular resentment across country
-Polish Comm party reappointed Gomulka as First Secretary-moderate
-USSR sent delegation to Warsaw 19-20 Oct + ordered Red Army to advance in city + attempt to stop Gomulka's election -
-withdrew troops + chose to believe Golmuka's reassurances of Poland remaining loyal to Warsaw Pact-voted for leader they wanted-change in USSR, took step back
-Khru didn't want to exercise same control + terror as Stalin -
-23 Oct large demonstration in Budapest to support Polish reformers + demanded withdrawal of troops + new gov under Imre Nagy
-USSR wanted Stalinist leader Rákosi replaced w/ Liberal Erno Gero-part of de-Stalinisation
-Khru despactched 30,000 troops to Hungary
-Gero replaced by Nagy-independent + reforming Communist
-Khru willing to compromise-Principles of Friendship between USSR + Socialist countries
-began to pull out troops of Hungary
-Nagy announced he intended to withdraw from Warsaw Pact -
-4th Nov Soviet troops + tanks entered Hungary
-3000 killed-heavy fighting erupted in countryside
-28 Oct rebels in control of most of Hungary outside Budapest
-few days after Sov advance new gov loyal to USSR under János Kádér
25-30,000 causalities, 200,000 escaped Hungary
-Nagy replaced,arrested,executed
-Tanks captured air fields,junctions,bridges
-rebellion threatened Soviet control over E bloc-risked other satellites rioting
-anti-Comm feelings threatened rule
-Hungary appealed to UN-weak -
-Khru condemned by world,demonstrated USSR would use force if necessary to maintain control
-concessions difficult without creating demand for transformation into genuine democratic regimes
-USSR lacked structure-Khru invited leaders of E bloc to Moscow Conf Oct 1957
-military help-leaders could appeal
-USSR deemed mightiest + greatest
-broke off Tito relations
-economic help considered-had to stick to political + economic model of USSR
-hardening of Sov attitude parallel over triumph w/ Suez -
-Khru unable to force USA to demilitarise W Berlin, and not willing to start a war
-Aug 1961 construction began for Berlin Wall
-Berlin Wall-failed to force W Allies to withdraw troops or compel them to negotiate peace treaties w/ German states
-contrusction of Berlin Wall success for Soviet policies-GDR existence recognised by West + FRG forced to drop Hallstein Doctrine
-improved Soviet economy as skilled workers unable to flee -
-1950s W Ger prospered-economic miracle w/ Marshall Aid
-GDR loyal ally of USSR-remained fragile + artificial-dependent on Moscow + 20 divisions of troops at frontiers
-confronted w/ prosperous W Ger + attracted youngest + ambitious citizens-losing skilled workers
-1945-61 1/6 of E Germans fled West
-crisis prompted by Khru speech 10th Nov 1958 demanding West withdrawal from W Berlin-"malignant tumour"-gave West 6 months to withdraw + failure would see USSR hand access rights to W Ber to E Ger -
-USA tanks appeared on streets of W Berlin + US recalled General Clay to supervise
-Kennedy limited response to verbal condemnations + no economic sanctions induced
-in private "a wall is a hell of a lot better than a war"-Kennedy -
-Berlin Wall symbolised Cold War + humiliation for Khru + acknowledgement that Communism couldn't compete w/ Capitalism
-Wall stabilised GDR's economy by stemming flood of E Ger refugees to West-able to introduce conscription
-Second Berlin crisis-took great care to avoid risk of war -
-Berlin Wall-prolonged crisis over Berlin ended-Kennedy wanted agreement
-limited but important success-GDR existence recognised + tolerated-no hostility from USSR -
-Kennedy + Khru concerned about how close world was to Nuclear War
-Khru willing to compromise-worried abt advantage USA believed to have w/ new ICBMs
-developing weapons + delivery systems huge economic drain for USSR
-concernced about challenge from communist China -
-banned nuclear tests in atmosphere, underwater + space-negotiated on assumption that only 2 nuclear powers which counted were USSR + USA
-rejected by France and China who developed own nuclear weapons
-significant first step as both sides committed to continued negotiations for nuclear disarmament -
-Second Berlin Crisis demonstrated dangers of nuclear war
-impact of Cuban Missile Crisis Oct 1962-nuclear weapons in CUba (90 miles off USA coast)-offered to withdraw only if US removed nuclear from Turkey-Kennedy refused + world on brink of war-both backed down
-economic considerations-both wanted to reduce huge arms expenditure-major drain was Space Race
-public opinion in US opposed nuclear tests -
-nuclear parity ensured peace but came at huge cost to West economies
-opponents of USSR not prepared to engage in military action to roll back communism if it would lead to direct confrontation
-Kennedy displayed ideological commitment to democracy 1963-limited to rhetorical rather than physical