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The Panic of 1857
This economic depression, caused by the collapse of several banks and railroads, triggered widespread unemployment and hardship, especially in the North. Its impact was felt mostly by industrial workers and farmers. The Panic aggravated sectional tensions, as Southern leaders argued that the North's economic instability proved the superiority of their agricultural economy (Foner, p. 69; Guelzo, p. 10). -
The Emancipation Proclamation
President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which declared the freedom of slaves in Confederate states, changing the character of the war. This pivotal moment shifted the Union’s focus from solely preserving the nation to also abolishing slavery, helping to redefine the war’s moral and political objectives (Foner, p. 63; Guelzo, p. 60). -
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The Battle of Gettysburg
One of the most decisive battles of the Civil War, the Battle of Gettysburg was a turning point. The Union Army's victory ended Confederate hopes of invading the North, significantly weakening the Southern cause. The battle is often cited as a moment when the Union gained the upper hand in the war (Foner, p. 115; Guelzo, p. 55). -
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The New York City Draft Riots
In response to the controversial draft laws, which excessively targeted working-class men, New Yorkers rioted for several days. The anger was intensified by racial tensions, with many seeing the draft as a way to free African Americans, who would compete for jobs. The violence led to the deaths of at least 100 people and deepened divisions between whites and blacks in Northern cities (Foner, p. 366; Guelzo, p. 79). -
The 13th Amendment
The passage of the 13th Amendment marked the legal end of slavery in the United States. It was one of the most crucial victories of the Reconstruction era, abolishing slavery and allowing the country to take its first steps toward integrating African Americans into American society, although full rights were still a long way off (Foner, p. 141; Guelzo, p. 62). -
The Assassination of Abraham Lincoln
President Lincoln's assassination by John Wilkes Booth had a profound impact on Reconstruction. His death altered the course of Reconstruction, as his successor, Andrew Johnson, adopted a more lenient approach toward the South, which led to significant conflict over the direction of Reconstruction policies (Foner, p. 148; Guelzo, p. 68). -
Colfax Massacre
In Louisiana, white supremacist groups attacked black Republicans in Colfax, murdering dozens in an effort to regain control of the local government. The massacre, a response to the Republican victory in local elections, was one of the most brutal instances of post-Civil War racial violence. The federal government’s failure to act exposed the fragility of Reconstruction’s protections for African Americans (Foner, p. 452; Guelzo, p. 72). -
Battle of Liberty Place
White supremacist groups in New Orleans attempted to overthrow the city’s Republican-led government. The attack was part of a larger effort by white southerners to regain political control through violence and intimidation. Federal intervention eventually restored the Republican government, but the battle symbolized the ongoing conflict between Reconstruction forces and southern resistance (Foner, p. 548; Guelzo, p. 73). -
The Compromise of 1877
The contested presidential election of 1876 resulted in the Compromise of 1877, which effectively ended Reconstruction. Rutherford B. Hayes, in exchange for southern electoral votes, agreed to withdraw federal troops from the South, signaling the end of Reconstruction and the beginning of the era of Jim Crow laws (Foner, p. 568; Guelzo, p. 95). -
Tilden-Hayes Compromise
In the aftermath of the contested 1876 election, the Compromise of 1877 marked the end of Reconstruction. Republican Rutherford B. Hayes agreed to withdraw federal troops from the South in exchange for the contested electoral votes. This deal effectively ended federal enforcement of Reconstruction policies, leading to the resurgence of white supremacy in the South and the abandonment of African American rights (Foner, p. 568; Guelzo, p. 95).