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Jan 1, 1000
Mental Discipline Theory
- First major historical theory
- Plato & Aristotle
- mind is like a muscle and needs to be exercised
- drill and rote memorization
- widley permeated the educational and psychological literature (Tracey & Morrow, 2012) for 2,500 years.
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Period: Jan 1, 1000 to
Early Roots
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Jan 1, 1100
Associationism
- devoted to how learning occurs
- based on Aristotle
- building on and retrieving background knowledge
- how concepts and ideas are associated with one another in the brain (Tracey & Morrow, 2012)
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Jan 1, 1500
Early Departure from the Alphabet Method
-Valentin Ickelsamer- German teacher
- students first learn to isolate speech sounds, then learn letters that stood for them.
- students began reading by naming letters
- one of the earliest methods to place the comprehension of meaning on the same level as decoding in beginning reading
(Sadoski, 2004) -
New England Primer
- dominated teaching of reading for a century
- reading lessons were typically performed orally, with accuracy, and in unison
- Mental Discipline Theory (Sadoski, 2004)
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Associationism
- John Locke- An Essay Concerning Humane Understanding
- people are born without any internal, innate knowledge
- importance is way by which knowledge is constructed through connections in the mind.
- Tabula Rosa- all learning occurs as a result of the individual's interactions with their enviornment. (Tracey & Morrow, 2012)
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Period: to
Scene in Early America
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American Spelling Book
- Noah Webster
- most widely used textbook in its day
- designed to introduce spelling and reading, teach grammar, and provide lessons for advanced reading and elocution. rote memorization was replaced with eloquent oral reading (Sadoski, 2004)
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Period: to
Changes and Reforms
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Unfoldment Theory
- Rousseau
- children's learning occurs naturally as a result of innate curiosity
- nature is at the center of children's learning
- recommends postponing reading and writing instruction until they were 10-15 years old. (Tracey & Morrow, 2012)
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Horace Mann
- Horace Mann visited European schools and returned to launch attack on the spelling method.
- word method and phonics method grew in popularity
- increase in attitudes and interests of children (Sadoski, 2004)
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Child Centered Learning
- Pestalozzi was influenced by Rousseau's unfoldment theory
- created child centered learning
- engaging physical environment were designed to stimulate children's natural curiosity for learning
- teachers provide instruction based on children's learning interests
- educational environment needs to be warm and nurturing
- corporeal punishment wasn't tolerated
- influenced the use of familiar objects, pictures, and storylines in early reading materials (Tracey & Morrow, 2012)
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Period: to
Changes and Reforms in the 1800s
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McGuffey Readers
- William H. McGuffey
- one reader for each grade level
- phonics method
- movement away from the alphabet method increasing emphasis on meaning and comprehension, emphasizing some moral point (Sadoski, 2004)
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Structuralism
- 1870s Wilhelm Wundt and J. M. Cattell, studied speed of reading words and letters
- 1880s Javal studied eye movements- eye movements in reading occur in small jumps
- Print perception is a critical component of the reading process
- teachers can use a pointer to help students follow the print as they read (Tracey & Morrow, 2012)
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Reading is thinking
-attention to comprehension and response
- 1915- first standardized tests in reading
- silent reading is superior to oral reading in both speed and comprehension
- concern for individual differences began to occur
(Sadoski, 2004) -
Period: to
Behaviorism
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Observable Changes
- theoretical response of Mentalism
- Watson believed in documentation of observable actions
- changed reading from perceptual processing to reading is a behavior complied of isolated skills
- direct instruction (Tracey & Morrow, 2012)
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Classical Conditioning Theory
- Pavlov
- dogs learn to association through simply ringing a bell
- theory can be used to understand students' emotional responses in the classroom
- an example of Behaviorism for is focuses on observable changes in behavior and responses to stimuli (Tracey & Morrow, 2012)
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Changes on the Scene
- goals in teaching reading
- methods emphasized silent reading for meaning
- no more emphasis on mechanics of reading
- basal readers -absence of comprehensive theory of reading skills and their teaching (Sadoski, 2004)
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Reading Skills
- William S. Gray
- most influential efforts to classify and sequence reading skills
- headed the National Commission on Reading, created a list of commonly taught skills
- developed a comprehensive skill model of reading; word perception, comprehension, evaluation of ideas, assimilation (Sadoski, 2004)
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Connectionism
-Thorndike
- The Law of Effect- if an act is followed by a satisfying change, act will repeat.
- stimuli has an influence on future behaviors
- Principle of Reinforcement
- concentrated the effects of varying stimuli that occurred after a behavior, instead of the consequences of varying stimuli
(Tracey & Morrow, 2012) -
New Basal Readers
- William S. Gray's model of reading involved learning a sight vocabulary
- illustrated stories
- Dick, Jane, Sally and their pets
- baby boom generation -90% of all children learned to read in this way (Sadoski, 2004)
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Period: to
Alternatives to the Conventional Wisdom
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Operant Conditioning Theory
- programmed learning
- learning is broken down into small, successive steps that are set up to maximize student success
- behavioral objective used to target behavior in need of change
- shaping- reinforcing good behavior (Tracey & Morrow, 2012)
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Critics of the Look-Say Basals
- Rudolf Flesch
- published Why Johnny Can't Read and What You Can Do about It
- advocated a return to phonics first
- increased attention to phonics in the basals (Sadoski, 2004)
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Language Experience
- descendent of the reading to words and letters approach by Francis Parker and others
- students' oral language is transcribed and used as materials for reading, writing, speaking, and listening (Sadoski, 2004)
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Inquiry Learning
- John Dewey
- learning was based on the Unfoldment Theory
- provides involved capable citizens
- problem based learning approach (Tracey & Morrow, 2012
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Period: to
Decade of Innovations in Teaching Reading
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Individualized Reading
-emphasis on student self-selection
- self-pacing
-teacher holds individual reading conferences regularly for teaching, evaluation, and small-group work
(Sadoski, 2004) -
Modified Alphabets
- approaches used additional alphabet characters and diacritical marks
- used in special beginning reading books
- gradual phasing into traditional phonics (Sadoski, 2004)
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U.S. Office of Education Conducts Studies
- supported 27 coordinated studies compares different methods of teaching first grade.
- all alternatives compared to teaching with a basal reader
- study indicated no significant difference in abilities
- no method was outstanding (Sadoski, 2004)
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Programmed Reading
- reading tasks are broken up into small parts
- splitting reading into subskill units for criterion-based testing
- workbook
- computerized reading programs (Sadoski, 2004)
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Linguistic Approach
- beginning readers read decodeable books
- word families
- -at (fat, cat, mat, sat, etc.)
- could be traced back to McGuffey readers (Sadoski, 2004)
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All Inclusive Reading Programs
- competitive publishers
- programs prescribed the teaching-learning situation
- systematic approach to teaching skills
- basals include tests, duplicating masters, supplementary reading books, etc. (Sadoski, 2004)
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Period: to
Reading is a Big Business
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Constructivism
- Frank Smith
- constructivism- learning that emphasizes the active construction of knowledge.
- learning occurs when individuals integrate new knowledge with existing knowledge
- learning is a natural brain function (Tracey & Morrow, 2012)
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Metacognitive Theory
- Process of thinking about one's own thinking
- Flavell and Brown
- Readers employ a number of metacongitive strategies during reading that assist them in understanding the text
- readers are aware of their own thinking (Tracey & Morrow, 2012)
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Transactional/Reader Rersponse Theory
- Louise Rosenblatt
- why we make meaning of text
- aesthetic responses are more meaningful
- the active role of the reader is to make meaning
- efferant meaning making- read for facts (Tracey & Morrow, 2012)
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Psycholinguistic Theory
- Goodmans
- analyze running records and teach to miscues
- read in context
- Reading Recovery
- Syntactic, graphophonics, and visual miscues
- reading is primarily a language process (Tracey & Morrow, 2012)
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Stage Models of Reading
-Ehri, Chall, Gough, Frith
- as skills develop, students increase number and type of strategies they can use while reading
- teachers can better understand and plan for their students' needs
(Tracey & Morrow, 2012) -
Family Literacy Theory
- Taylor
- overlaps with Emergent Literacy Theory in that at-home experiences contribute to children's success
- how families and children extend literacy at home and in their community (Tracey & Morrow, 2012)
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Emergent Literacy Theory
- Marie Clay
- students with severe learning disabilities may stay in emergent literacy for much longer than average readers
- listening, speaking, reading, and writing
- development starts at birth and is continuous and ongoing
- students understand concepts about print (Tracey & Morrow, 2012)
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Period: to
Pendulum Back to Decoding
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Schema Theory
- people organize everything we know into schemta
- files in the brain
- schemata is individualized
- knowledge structures are pliable and expandable (Tracey & Morrow, 2012)
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Parallel Distributed Processing Model/Connectionism
- Seidenberg & McClelland
- All cognitive information is sorted in connetions between units, connections between units become stronger with repetition
- when pairings become more friquent, the connection increases (Tracey & Morrow, 2012)
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Emergent Literacy
- Guthrie
- theory begins to be applied to instruction
- five major components of reading
- themes in reading instruction, student choice for reading texts and responses, hands-on activities, text genres, social collaboration into reading response activities (Tracey & Morrow, 2012)
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Period: to
1990-2000
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Neuroscience
- Goswami
- contrast to cognitive science theoretical in nature, neuroscience is biological in nature
- strive to draw connections between the brain processes
- scientists study how they interact with each other (Tracey & Morrow, 2012)
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Third Space Theory
- Lefebvre
- concept as "space" can be viewed not only as physical concept but also as a mental construct
- first space- individual's knowledge and discourses
- second space- more removed influences life school, work, and church
- third space- people create third spaces, created with intersections of the influences of first and second spaces (Tracey & Morrow, 2012)
