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Environmentalism / Behaviorism
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Skinner
Skinner provided one of the earliest explanations of how languages are acquired. He promoted the idea that children learn language via behaviorist reinforcement principles. According to Skinner, children learn when their correct word associations are positively reinforced – when successful communication occurs. -
Chomsky
Chomsky argued that it is not possible to acquire the language skills needed to process an infinite number of possible sentence combinations simply by having large amounts of input. Chomsky believed that Skinner’s ideas did not take into account the ways that humans use thought to produce language. Chomsky proposed the idea of the Language Acquisition Device (LAD), and also differentiated between competence and performance. -
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Interactionist Theories
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Hymes
Hymes expanded Chomsky’s idea of competence; he called it “communicative competence” and said that it accounted for context and social factors. The idea of competence refers both to the knowledge of the language as well as the ability to use it effectively. Hymes emphasized the idea that language learners need to know not only if what they say is grammatically correct, but also if it is suitable for the context in which they say it. -
Selinker
Selinker proposed the idea of “interlanguage,” referring to the language of the learner. According to Selinker, interlanguage constantly changes as learners receive additional input. The input shapes and redefines the hypotheses that the learner holds regarding language use. -
Vygotsky
Vygotsky proposed the idea of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), highlighting the important role of social interaction. He emphasized the idea that “learning precedes and contributes to development” and that the learner’s performance supported by others surpasses what he is able to do alone. The idea is that what students can do with assistance now…they will soon be able to do on their own. -
Canale and Swain
They designed a model of L2 communicative competence comprised of 4 competence components: grammatical, sociolinguistic, strategic and discourse. Grammatical refers to phonology, vocabulary, sentence formation, etc. Sociolinguistic includes sociocultural rules of language use. Strategic refers to coping mechanisms that people use when facing communication difficulties. Discourse is the ability to produce language in the communicative modes: listening, speaking, reading and writing. -
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Communicative Approaches
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Long
Long proposed the Interaction Hypothesis, stating that “speakers make changes in their language as they interact or negotiate meaning with each other.” Long’s ideas are based on the view that listening to input does not provide sufficient means for language acquisition. Rather, learners must be active participants in conversations and that they must interact and negotiate meaning in order to acquire the target language. -
Krashen
Krashen's Monitor Model explains how language is acquired. According to Krashen, the critical ingredient for language acquisition is ample input. The tenets of the Monitor Model are: the acquisition – learning hypothesis, the monitor hypothesis, the natural-order hypothesis, the input hypothesis, and the affective-filter hypothesis. For language acquisition to occur, there must be ample comprehensible input, minimum stress and anxiety, and information that is not prescribed by grammar. -
Swain
Swain agreed with Krashen in that input is critical for language development, but disagreed with the idea that input alone is sufficient. Swain emphasized the idea that learners also need opportunities to produce output. Her theory is based upon the idea that output helps learners to discover the gaps that exist in what they want (and are able) to say. Opportunities for output allow students to try out linguistic rules and to modify them as needed. -
Gass
Gass emphasized the role of automatic processing. According to Gass, this type of linguistic processing is quick, unconscious and effortless. In contrast to automatic process in controlled processing, in which the leaner accesses explicit metalinguistic knowledge about language structures and concepts. Whereas automatic processing occurs without much thought, controlled processing may delay response time.
