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First School Museum Opens
The first school museum opened in St. Louis (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018). School museums housed portable museum exhibits, slides, films, and stereographs in a central location (Saettler, 1968). School museums were intended to supplement traditional teaching and textbooks not replace them (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018). -
Instructional Films Introduced to Schools
The Rochester, NY public school system became the first to adopt the use of instructional films (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018). The earliest educational films were often newsreels and travelogues which were created for entertainment purposes then repurposed (Kivel, 2014). idespread adoption was curtailed by teacher resistance, lack of training, poor quality, and cost of equipment and films (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018). Link text
(Bray Pictures Co, 1920). -
Division of Visual Instruction (DVI) Established
In response to school administrators' increased interest in the use of new media (slides, motion pictures), the National Education Association established the Division of Visual Instruction (DVI) (AECT, 2001). Membership quickly grew into the hundreds. Despite increasing membership, for the first seven years it existed, the DVI did not hire permanent staff, disseminate publications, or offer substantive services to its members (AECT, 2001). -
Radio Introduced to Schools
Haaren High School in New York City became the first public school to use the radio in classroom teaching (Haran, 2015). Throughout the 1920's and 1930's, the use of radios in the classroom grew as prices fell and the the U.S. Department of Commerce licensed time to broadcast educational lessons (Haran, 2015). Educational radio programs typically lasted between 30-60 minutes and were broadcast a few times a week and were used to supplement, not replace, teachers or textbooks (Cuban, 1986). -
Sydney Pressey's Teaching Machine
Sydney Pressey, an educational psychology professor at Ohio State University, debuted his teaching machine at the December 29, 1924 meeting of the American Psychological Association (Ferster, 2014). Pressey's machine incorporated Edward Thorndike's laws of recency, effect, and exercise to maximize learning (Pagliaro, 1983). The type-writer like machine prompted students to answer multiple-choice questions by selecting the corresponding key for the correct answer (Pressey, 1926). -
Ralph Tyler's Eight Year Study Begins
Ralph Tyler is considered the father of the behavioral objectives movement (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018). The Eight-Year Study refined the procedures for writing instructional objectives. When objectives were provided, they were often vague and did not directly address student behavior (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018). Instead, Tyler stated that objectives "must be defined in terms which clarify the kind of behavior which the course should help to develop" (Walbesser & Eisenberg, 1972). -
Division of Visual Aids for War Training Established
The Division of Visual Aids for War Training was established by the federal government to quickly train millions of war industry workers (Social Networks and Archival Context Cooperative, 2018). Between 1941 and 1945, the division oversaw the production of 457 training films (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018). The films reduced training time without reducing training effectiveness (Saettler, 1990). -
U.S. Military Training During WWII
Audiovisual media were used extensively in U.S. military training between 1941-1945 (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018). "The U.S. Army Air Force produced more than 400 training films and 600 filmstrips" that were shown more than 400 million times (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018, p. 10). In addition to training films and filmstrips, the overhead projector was also widely used World War II and eventually the device spread to schools (Haran, 2015). -
World War II & The Origins of Instructional Design
During World War II, educators and psychologists with experience in conducting experiential research were tasked with developing training materials for the U.S. military (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018). These individuals included Robert Gagne, Leslie Briggs, and John Flanagan (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018). Many of these psychologists continued their research on instructional design after World War II, building on their research and experiences during the war (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018). -
Use of Headphones in Schools
Tape recorders became popular, leading to the use of headphones in schools (Kitao, 1995). Language labs were constructed. A 1957-1958 survey indicated that 240 colleges and 54 high schools had dedicated language laboratories (Amano, 1967). -
B.F. Skinner Publishes "The Science of Learning and the Art of Teaching"
B.F. Skinner's 1954 article sparked the programmed instruction movement of the mid-1950's to mid-1960's (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018). Skinner advocated the use of operant conditioning to increase learning. Instruction was to be provided in an ordered sequence of small steps requiring immediate student response (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018). The student should receive immediate feedback and positive reinforcement for correct answers (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018). -
Sputnik and the Golden Age of Education
The Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik, an unmanned satellite, stirred national interest in educational reform (Molnar, 1997). The U.S. government spent millions of dollars on improving science and math education (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018). This period is known as the "golden age of education" (Molnar, 1997). -
PLATO I Created at the University of Illinois
Programmed Logic for Automatic Teaching Operations (PLATO) was created at the University of Illinois' Computer Education Research Laboratory under the direction of Donald Bitzer (Pagliaro, 1983). PLATO I featured a television set that displayed interactive text and a special 16-button keyboard for typing answers (Ferster, 2014). PLATO utilized a unique software that was able to distinguish between incorrect answers and answers that were simply mispelled (Ferster, 2014). -
Mager's "Preparing Objectives for Programmed Instruction" Published
Robert Mager's 1962 book uses humor to describe "how to write objectives that include a description of desired learner behaviors, the conditions under which the behaviors are to be performed, and the standards by which the behaviors are to be judged" (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018, p. 13). Mager popularized the use of behavioral objectives but he did not create the concept. Other advocates of behavioral objectives include Ralph Tyler and Benjamin Bloom and his colleagues (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018). -
Rise of the Criterion-Referenced Testing Movement
In 1963, Robert Glaser coined the term "criterion-referenced measures" to describe "how well an individual can perform a behavior or set of behaviors, irrespective of how well others perform" (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018, p. 14). The criterion-referenced testing movement began in the early 1960's. It is a central feature of instructional design procedures today due to its ability to assess both entry-level behavior and the extent to which a behavior has been learned (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018.) -
Robert M. Gagne's "The Conditions of Learning" Published
In his 1965 book, Robert Gagne introduced the concept of task analysis to instructional design (Khadjooi, Rostami, & Ishaq, 2011). Task analysis allows the instructional task to be broken down into sequential steps. Gagne described 5 domains of learning outcomes ("verbal information, intellectual skills, psychomotor skills, attitudes, and cognitive strategies") and 9 events of instruction which are essential to the attainment of these learning outcomes (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018, p. 14). -
Sesame Street Debuts
On November 10, Sesame Street debuted on public television (Cashill, 2016). Sesame Street cost $8 million a year to produce 26 episodes which were provided free to educational stations across the U.S. (New York Times, 1970). It's inner-city setting and use of non-White actors was a stark contrast from other educational programming at the time (Cashill, 2016). In May 1970, Mississippi briefly banned Sesame Street on the basis that the state "was not yet ready for it" (New York Times, 1970). -
First Handheld Calculator Introduced
The first handheld calculator was introduced by the Japanese company Busicom (Nippon Calculating Machine Company) in 1970 and Canon (Hayakawa Electric) in 1971 (Novak, 2012). These calculators were expensive with Hewlett-Packard releasing the HP-35 in 1972 for $395 (Novak, 2012). Schools were slow to adopt the use of handheld calculators due to the high cost and the fear that they would undermine traditional mathematics skills (Wilson, Morellana, & Meek, 2010). -
Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium (MECC) Founded
The Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium (MECC) was founded by the state's four public educational systems: the state university system, the community college system, the University of Minnesota, and the state's department of education (Haugo, 1981). MECC coordinated computer services to students, teachers, and administrators throughout the state (Haugo, 1981). Additionally, MECC produced educational software including Lemonade Stand in 1973 and Oregon Trail in 1974 (MECC, 2015). -
ADDIE Model Created
The ADDIE model (analysis, design, development, implementation, evaluation) was created at Florida State University in 1975 and quickly adopted by the U.S. military (Watson, 1981). ADDIE was originally used to speed and standardize production of military training materials (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018). ADDIE is a popular instructional design model, however, it has its detractors. ADDIE's use of documentation and slow, meticulous nature are among its weaknesses (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018). -
Apple Macintosh Computer Released
The Apple Macintosh computer was released. The use of personal computers in homes, businesses, and schools grew exponentially over the next few decades. By 2009, there was 1 computer for every 5.3 students in U.S. schools (U.S. Department of Education, 2010). -
Rise of Constructivism
Constructivism came to prominence in instructional design during the 1990's. Constructivists posit that people learn by making sense out of the things they encounter (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018).
Constructivism typically centers around authentic problems and projects (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018). Constructivism has both fierce supporters and detractors and continues to be used today. -
First Smartphone Released
The IBM Simon Personal Communicator is regarded as the first smartphone sold in the U.S. (Aamoth, 2014). The $1,100 device featured a touchscreen and could access and send email (Aamoth, 2014). Although the Simon was a flop, widespread adoption of wireless smartphone technology grew over the following decades. Smartphones are now widely used in business and education. By 2010, there was 1 wireless device for every 3.4 students in US schools (U.S. Department of Education, 2010). -
Industrial Design in the 21st Century
ID&T since 2000 has been influenced by the rapidly-changing world. Increased use of online learning placed an increased focus on the importance of instructional designers (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018). Increased reliance on informal training measures in the workplace, such as social media, required instructional designers to expand their professional skillsets (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018). Lastly, Instructional designers are rethinking traditional techniques such as ADDIE (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018). -
Techonology as an Integral Part of the Classroom Experience
In 2009, 40% of U.S. teachers reported that they or their students "often" used computers during instructional time (U.S. Department of Education, 2010). Commonly-used classroom equipment included LCD (36%) or DLP (48%) projectors, interactive whiteboards (28%), and digital cameras (64% of classrooms) (U.S. Department of Education, 2010). As educational technology expands, it's use in the classroom should only be expected to grow. -
U.S. Department of Education Releases "Future Ready Learning" Report
The U.S. Department of Education released its formal educational technology plan to address skills and standards needed in 21st Century classrooms (U.S. Department of Education, 2016). Future Ready Learning encourages education stakeholders to work together to use technology to improve American education (U.S. Department of Education, 2016). The report provided recommendations and guidance on learning, teaching, leadership, assessment, and infrastructure. -
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