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410
Romans Leave Britain
They did not leave much of their Latin language -
Jan 1, 1000
Beowulf
An epic poem spoken in Old English around the time of the Anglo-Saxons. It is simply about struggle between the hero, Beowulf, and a bloodthirsty monster called Grendel. Some words include "Hwæt" related to the modern word "what". It may be translated as "Behold". Many of the words in Beowulf are kennings which combine two words to create an imaginative alternative word, such as banhus (bone-house) – meaning ‘human body’, or beadoleoma (battle-light) – meaning sword. -
Jan 1, 1066
Norman Conquest
William the Conquerer invaded England and brought new concepts of the English Language from the channel. He brought words from the French Language such as 'judge', 'jury', 'evidence' and justice' which were also common in official businesses. Latin was still spoke in Churches however the common man still spoke English. Words such as 'cow', 'shee' and 'swine' cake from English speaking farmers. Moreover, the Normans brought around 10,000 words to the English Language. -
Jan 1, 1290
Expulsion of Jews from England - The Rochester Chronicle
The first migration of Jews to England were with William the Conqueror shortly after 1066. And throughout this period, the Jews suffered from Anti-Semitic predjudice in addition to many riots against them. By the late 1200s, a series of laws had been created restricting the rights of the Jewish people. For instance, they were not allowed to own land. They were not allowed to return to England until 1656. These laws were written in the Rochester Chronicle. -
Jan 1, 1348
Chronicle of the Black Death
The Black Death hit Europe in 1348 and swept through the continent rapidly. This time also marked events that changed the position of England. It was written in a Cathedral Priory of Rochester between 1314 and 1350, includes a firsthand account of the Black Death. -
Jun 4, 1387
Chaucer, The Canterbury Tales
One of the best known literary texts. It is written in Middle English and is simply about a group of pilgrims travelling from London to Cantebury Cathedral, and to pass time an inkeeper instructs them to tell tales. There are a variety of character from 14th Century England. It was written in English rather than French and was one of the first English Literature works. It was began in 1387 and finished in 1400 thus was popular in medieval England. -
Jan 1, 1419
English as the Language of Government
After the 1066 Norman Conquest, the French language was still used by those whom were in power. However Henry V broke this tradition using English. -
Feb 14, 1477
Valentine's day love letter
The oldest Enlgish Valentine letter written by Margery Brews to her fiance John Paston. It comes from the Paston letters of the 15th Century, which is about the personal lives of the Paston family from Norfolk. -
Jan 1, 1480
Robert Henryson, The Fables of Esope
Henryson was a 15th century Scottish poet whose work developed some of Chaucer’s themes. His work conbines a sense of morality with real sympathy. It is written in middle English. -
Jan 1, 1490
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight
One of the most famous romances in medieval English literature, telling the adventures of Sir Gawain, a knight of King Arthur's Round Table. The story of Gawain's struggle to meet the appointment, and his adventures along the way, demonstrate the spirit of chivalry and loyalty that played a central part in English culture in this period. It was written in the late 14th century, possibly in the North-West Middlands, relying on a traditional style of Brittish poerty based on alliteration. -
Jan 1, 1516
Thomas More's Utopia
Sir Thomas More (1477 - 1535) was the first person to write of a 'utopia', a word used to describe a perfect imaginary world. It consists of a complex, self-contained community set on an island, in which people shared a common culture and way of life. Utopia was coined from mon culture and way of life. He coined the word 'utopia' from the Greek ou-topos meaning 'no place' or 'nowhere'. -
Jun 4, 1526
First English Bible
William Tyndale's Bible was the first English language Bible. The English Church had previously been governed from Rome, and church services were by law conducted in Latin although those who could not speak Latin were unable to understand the Bible. Tyndale beleived everyone should have access to the Bible in a language they understood. -
Jun 4, 1553
Letter from Elizabeth I
The letter reveals the Tudor struggles, telling her young half-brother, (Edward VI) how she had tried to visit him during his final illness yet was sent away. The letter uses modernised spelling. -
Jan 1, 1563
John Foxe’s Book of Martyrs
Survey of Christian Martyrs, placing significant emphasis on on those who had died for their faith during the reign of Queen Mary (1553-58). It was widely read during the 16th and 17th century. It also influenced the opinion of Catholicism. His first studies were of the early Christian martyrs, the victims of the Inquisition, and the followers of Wycliffe and Tyndale, who supported the reading of the Bible in English. The first edition was published in Latin. He was an impartial writer. -
Jan 1, 1564
Shakespeare
Created 2000 new words and phrases such as "eyeball", "puppydog", "anchovie", "hob-nob". It created a rich, vibrant English Laguage with limitless expressive and emotional power. -
American English
When Britons went to America, they needed to create words for the new plants/animals. For example, "racoon", "squash", and "moose" all came from Native America. America also spread a new language of capitalism. -
Sahkespeare's Sonnets
A 14 line fixed patterned rhyming verse coming from Italian poertry. He created a collection of 154 sonnets. They were written in Elizabethan langugae. -
King James Bible
An authorised version of the Bible, containing many phrases in which are still in use today. E.g. "an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth.." (Matthew 5:38). The Bishops’ Bible of 1568 was the main source of translation, yet it contained earlier translations including Tyndale’s New Testament (1526). It is a conservativ text keeping some outdated words/phrases. It was used in most English and Scottish churches until the mid-20th century thus its language was prestigious. -
English of Science
Before the 17th Century Britain was full of physicists such as Robert Hooke (1635-1703), Robert Boyle (1627-1691) and Isaac Newton (1643-1727), in 1660, the Royal Society was formed also. They originally worked in Latin however English then transformed the Language bringing words e.g. "acid", "gravity" and "electricity". Science also became interested in the human body, coining words e.g. "cardiac", and "tonsil". -
The London Gazette - Fire of London
An article to report the great fire of London which started in a baker's shop in Pudding Lane on 2 September. It raged for 4 days. -
John Bunyan, Pilgrim’s Progress
One of the most widely read novels in western canon. Bunyan was a non-conformist who spent many years imprisoned for refusing to not preach, Pligrim’s Progess tells the story of Christian’s struggle to overcome various obstacles that hinder his passage from the City of Destruction to the Celestial City. The language is allowed by the King James Bible in addition to the colloquial language of his day. It uses a voyage narrative in a spiritural context. -
John Milton's Paradise Lost
One of the most influential poems in the English Language, with an aim to justify the ways of God to man portraying Satan as a charismatic rebel, It enacts debates about the nature of free will and predestination, and has sparked much critical and philosophical discussion. It consists of much complex sentence structure, and distinctive sound patterning. It was written at time of significant political changes and thus campaigned for religious and civil liberties/freedom. -
English and the Empire
Brought land and wealth in addition to carribbean words such as "canoe" and "canibole". India also brought words such as "yoga", "wudu", and zombie". Also words were brought from Austrailia such as "nugget", "boomerang" and "walkabout". The conquering of Nepolian amounted to new varieties accross the globe. -
The Spectator
A periodical published daily by Joseph Addison and Sir Richard Steele who were both politicians. It carried news and comments particularly on manner, morals and literature. The magazine of essays was popular for expressing 18th century views, ideas and literature. -
Swift, A Modest Proposal
One of literary canon's most famous examples of satire. proposing that the most obvious solution to Ireland's economic crisis is for the Irish to sell their children as food and is used as a piece of rhetoric. -
Samuel Richardson, Pamela
One of the earliest English novelists and the story is written as a series of letters, and is about 15-year old servant Pamela Andrews, who is left without protection after the death of her mistress Lady B. Pamela keeps her journal as a series of thoughts, and the reward Pamela gains for her virtue is therefore access to upper-class society - it allows the reader access to Pamela’s thoughts and feelings. -
Muffin Seller
Wining and dining was a trend amongst the wealthy, however eating out was possible for even the poorest members of 18th-century society. Businesses thus catered for all walks of life. -
Age of the Dictionary
Lexicographers put an end to the varieties of English. Dr Johnston (1746 - 1755) took 9 years to write his dictionary including 42, 773 entries of the English Language with standard spellings. In 1857 a new book entitled the Oxford English Dictionary was also invented, and has since been revised. -
Captain Cook's journal
Captain Coooke wanted to go where no man had ever gone before. He went on pioneering voyages to explore and survey Newfoundland, Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific. The journal tests rumours of cannibalism. -
Anglo-Indian newspaper
First English Language newspaper published in the Indian-Subcontinent. It was founded in Calcutta, capital of British India at the time, by Irishman James Augustus Hicky in 1779. Several anglo-indian terms are spottable e.g. large godown (warehouse) - adapted from the south Indian languge. -
Olaudah Equiano
An African slave who, after buying his freedom, became a prominent anti-slavery campaigner. He wrote an autobiography: The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano or Gustavus Vassa. It describes his life in Nigeria as a young boy and the journey to the Caribbean on a slave ship. There were 9 editions and it was translated and printed in many European countries -
Thomas Paine's Rights of Man
This was Thomas Paine's most famous work and was published 2 years after the French revolution. it supports mankinds natural rights e,g, life, liberty, free speech, freedom of conscience, as well as civil rights such as ecurity and protection. He highlighted the fact that only a fraction of the people who paid taxes were entitled to vote. Was one of the most widely read books at the time. -
Mary Wollstonecraft's Rights of Woman
A feminist writer, who wrote about her belief that women were only seen as inferior to men because they did not have the same opportunities for a good education. She stressed that women could contribute a huge amount to society, if only they were given the freedom to do so. -
William Wordsworth, 'I wandered lonely as a cloud'
Revolutionary work of the Romantic poet. Wordsworth believed that poetry should explore the purity and beauty of nature, and the deep human emotion inspired by the natural landscape. He was once a supporter of the French revolution, and was was horrified by the industrialisation of Britain and by the social injustices that came with modernisation - over-crowded cities, poverty, oppression. The poem is 24 lines. -
Jane Austen, Persuasion
The work explores the complexities of English society and the relationship between wealth, love and freedom of thought for women. The novels are powerful social commentaries, which reflect so many of the restrictions placed on women at the time. A woman without a husband could face poor social reputation and financial instability. The novel seemed to reflect aspects of Austen's own life. -
John Keats' 'Ode to a Nightingale'
The poem is dominated by thoughts of death and mortality, contrasted with the painful nature of joy and beauty.It takes into account the pain of TB which at the time he was experiencing first symptoms of, and had previously killed his mother and brother. The poem is rich in imagery e.g. "Drowsy numbness" which reflects the release that the writer desires at the time. -
Anti-slavery poem for children
'The Black Man's Lament,' is an anti-slavery poem written by Amelia Opie for children. It is a narrative about the life of a slave. It follows the story of an African man's capture by slave traders, his journey to the West Indies on a slave ship, and the work he was forced to perform on the sugar plantations. -
Diary description of London
Social reformer Francis Place speaks of a 'gloriously fine morning' in London's Charing Cross. The passage paints a vivid picture and sensual wonders of the city. -
Execution of a 12 year old boy
Executions were often reported - boy was sentenced to death at the Old Bailey. It contains a lengthy account of the boys crime. Most punishments in this period were held public. -
Charles Dickens, Oliver Twist
Dicken's second novel, about an orphan boy whose good heart and healthy appetite helps him escape the terrible underworld of pickpockets and poverty in 1830s London. It seems to have drawn the personal experiences of Dicken's himself. The book is more darker than the stage/film version. -
Robert Browning, Dramatic Lyrics
Porphyria’s Lover’ and ‘My Last Duchess’ are two of its most striking poems, and bear a number of similarities. Both are examples of the dramatic monologue which is favoured by Browning E.g. 'My Last Duchess’ is narrated by the vain and materialistic Duke of Ferrara, who grows jealous at his young wife, Both poems are evident pun between what the speakers say and what words reveal about them. Relates to the 13th Century Ballad. -
Emily Bronte - Wuthering Heights
A striking and original novel. It i simply about the passionate relationship between Catherine Earnshaw and Heathcliff, the destructive effects of their love, and the wild backdrop of the Yorkshire moors, based on the landscape around Emily Bronte’s native Haworth. It is a complex novel and as an intricate structure where events imply an external narrator. -
Charlotte Bronte - Jane Eyre
A Victorian gothic novel about an orphan girl who gained position as a governess and overcame many hardships/setback in order to marry her employer (Mr Rochester). It creates social connections to the voices being heard. It was initially published as a pseudonym (Currer Bell) but Charlotte was unable to keep her true identitiy. -
Get your ‘air cut!
Highlighted in the magazine "Punch", recording the social attitudes to language. The phonological abandoning of the 'h' reflects social class. Writers are still concerned about dropping the initial letters of words today. -
Cookery for the poor
A cookery book intended for the working classes with the assumption its readers could not afford expensive ingredients. It was written by Alexis Soyer who was concerned to improve the standard of cooking for the poor. He also worked with Florence Nightingale in the Crimean War with wounded soldiers. He developed his own range of cooking ingredients. -
Mary Seacole's autobiography
Thee daughter of a white Scottish officer in the British army and a Jamaican woman, often described as black Florence Nightingale. She helped wounded soldiers in the Crimean War (1853 - 1856). She wrote the autobiography after becoming bankrupt, and it holds a frank, bustling and patriotic tone. It recalls her self-image in addition to capturing the melodrama. -
Nursery Rhymes
A significant aspect of a childs education, and it also introduces an element of humour which everyone can relate to. Young children favour rhyme and reptition, such as "Polly put the Kettle On" which has changed somewhat over time. -
Alice's Adventures in Wonderland
One of the best loved children's books of all time written by Lewis Carol. It is about a young girl who falls into a rabbit hole into a hallucinogenic world with talking packs of cards, and animals who look at pocket watches, smoke pipes and have tea parties. -
The Queen's English
Henry Alford's A Plea for the Queen's English was one of the most influential and earliest manuals. It addressed topics many people found difficult and hightlights that little has changed over the past 150 years. He initiated the apostrophe in plurals. -
Letter from Charles Darwin
Extraordinary explanations about how life works with implications still being dealt with today. He was an English naturalist. In his letter, Darwin iscusses 'non-blending of certain varieties' in the field of genetics. -
George Eliot, Middlemarch
Written by Mary Ann Evans, and covers many themes e.g. the status of women, idealism, religion, hypocrisy, contemporary politics, love, and the coming of the railways. Its a novel that explores the true ways of life, and the obstacles to overcome. -
Saturday night at the Victoria Theatre, The Graphic
On of the most affordable Victorian entertainment. It describes in detail the many diverse entertainments on offer at the music hall including'performing animals, winners of walking, matches, successful scullers, shipwrecked sailors, swimmers of the Channel, conjurers, ventriloquists and tight-rope dancers. -
Mark Twain, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn
True name of the author is Samuel Longhorne Clemmens and his novel captures the essence of American English . The language also represents the African-American Dialect. It has a rather interesting narrative. -
The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde
Written by Henry Jekyll and Edward Hyde, and is simply about a murder - exploring a doctors explanation of human identity. It was a short novel, reflecting the fascination with duality that had haunted Robert Louis Stevenson for many years. It is linked to the repression demanded by Scottish Calvinism via the structure of middle-class Edinburgh society. Much of the story is set at night, and the fogs and moonlit streets of late-Victorian London creating an eerie atmosphere. -
Jack the Ripper murders
An unknown serieal killer, reported in a letter to the Central News Agency by someone claiming to be the murderer. It created a media hook. The newspaper dealt with crimes, disasters and scandals within society - it was also a tabloid. -
Thomas Hardy, Tess of the D'Urbervilles
Hardy examines the social upheaval affecting traditional rural ways of life in addition to the ocial constraints of Victorian England. It explored themes of love and relationships that crossed class boundaries, often using dialect in character dialogue to mark these social distinctions. The story represents a change from Standard English to dialect including spoken dialogue te.g.'t'ye' and 'well as I know 'ee by sight'. -
H G Wells, The Time Machine
Science fiction novel, which is a critique of utopian ideas, set in the year 802701. The human race is divided into three groups: the subterranean workers, the Morlocks, and the decadent Eloi. It captivates issues such as humans who struggle with their environment and it looks into the division of humanity. As well aas being a science fiction genre, it also deals with human nature, duality and the relationship between technology. -
Rudyard Kipling, Just So Stories
Both a poet and novelist. He wrote many short stories using colloqial dialect, and was often popular with a general audience. It manipulated a language dating back to the earliest English Literature. His stories were seemingly designed to be read aloud. -
Christabel Pankhurst speech
Fighting for votes for women and focusses on the suffering women endured both socially and politically. Christabel was an energetic speaker in the early years of peaceful campaigning to raise awareness of the cause of womens suffering. -
Captain Scott's Diary
One of the most famous arctic explorers in Brittish history, and was the leader of the failed 1912 South Pole Expedition. His final diary entry was made before himself and his companions died. The final words read: 'For God's sake look after our people'. -
George Bernard Shaw, Pygmalion
A play which opened in London in 1914 and explores the relationship between a teacher known as Professor Henry Higgins and a flower girl (Eliza Doolittle). It created early 20th Century language, and social class attitudes. The rewritten versions include the Cockney pronunciation such as 'Eah (Here)! you gimme thet enkecher (handkerchief)'. -
'Dulce et Decorum Est' by Wilfred Owen
One of the most famous poets of WW1, who written poetry while serving in the Trenches. He uses a combination of realism and compassion in his writings, as he descibes the soldiers sufferings. The morality of the world is described in phrases such as 'froth-corrupted lungs' and 'sores on innocent tongues'. It is rather ironic also. -
Art in poetry - EE Cummings
Typography and text layout became common for 20th Century poets. Words often run together or are broken apart by spaces or punctuation marks that give clues as to how to read the poem out loud. -
Nottinghamshire dialect - DH Lawrence
DH Lawrence (1885–1930) is best known for his novels, several of which include dialogue in the dialect of Nottinghamshire. It juxtaposes the tragic and comic or working class life, using colloquial rhythms and idioms. It also captures local pronunciation, portraying the East Middlands accent. -
Wanted poster for Hitler
Appeared on the front page of the Daily Mirror, just after Britain and France declared a war on Germany. It was a powerful properganda, and the intention was to present Hitler as an enemy. This format was also used in The Times to cover global research for Osama Bin Laden in 2001. -
Man lands on the moon
After World War II, several nations, particularly the Soviet Union and the United States (enemies in the Cold War) competed to be the first to send rockets, then animals, then men into space. This was a significant event that was celebrated worldwide. However, editors used an image produced in advanced due to the fact that equipment to send photographic images through space was not available at this point. -
Internet English
In 1972, the first email was sent snf in 1991, the internet coined numerous words: "download", "toolbar" and "blog" to name a few. The 1970's also led to numerous abbreviations such as BTW (by the way), FAQ (frequently asked questions) which is often transferred to spoken language (e.g. LOL) -
Punk fanzine: Sniffin' glue
They were produced by Mark Perry after seeing the US Punk Band (The Rammones). Perry's fanzine was the perfect punk form. It reported the moment immediately as it happened, from an insider's point of view. -
Linguistic Atlas
In England is published -
Women's liberation magazine
This is related to the Feminist movement, which began to campaign for womens rights, freedom and liberation. Moreover, it is linked to protesting, Protestors carried cards reading 'Miss-fortune demands equal pay for women, Miss-conception demands free abortion for all women, Miss-placed demands a place outside the home'. Their slogan was: 'We're not beautiful, we're not ugly, we're angry'. -
Period: to
History of the English Language
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Rodney Huddleston and Geoffrey K. Pullum
Published The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Tom McArthur publishes The Oxford Guide to World English. -
Mimi Khalvati, 'Ghazal: after Hafez'
Hafez was a Persian lyrical poet who lived in the 14th century, and his work holds a similar place in Arabic and Iranian culture to that of Shakespeare’s sonnets in British culture. They are classic poems, following a strict metre, rhyme and refrain usually dealing with emotions and themes that can be reasoned e.g. faith, love and, in Khalvati’s case, identity and place. It is relatively new in English, and Ghazal exemplifies the East/West. Similar to the sonnett (more traditional) -
Twitter
A social networking and microblogging service, was created by Jack Dorsey. -
Moniza Alvi, 'The Veil'
She was a poet born in Pakistan, and her work explores the disconection between her Brittish and Pakistani culture. The Veil is from a collection (Europa) and it demonstrates the violence between the East and West. It takes themes and adapts them to the modern era. Its a somewhat political rhetoric presenting a concealed image, encouraging the reader to challenge reductive political statements asking large political questions. -
Oxford University Press
Published a two-volume Historical Thesaurus of the Oxford English Dictionary. -
Global English Today
The English Language (1500 years since the Romans left Britain) has shown a unique nature to absorb, invade, evolve and steal. It is now a fully fledged langugae and contains words from over 350 languages and currently around 1.5 million of the global population speak English. -
Anglo-Saxon
Anglo-Saxons arrived in England after the Romans bringing new words to the English language such as 'wolf'. -
Christian Missionaries
Brought new words from the Latin Language such as 'Martyr', 'Bishop' and 'Font' -
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
This is an annual record of events created around 890 during the reign of King Alfred the Great. It was the first attempt to create a yearly account of Brittish History. it was later maintained, and added to, by generations of anonymous scribes until the middle of the 1100s.
