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School Museums
School museums served as some of the earliest examples of the use of media for instructional purposes, dating back to the 1900s. They included exhibits, stereographs, slides, films, study prints, and other instructional materials. -
Instructional Films
The "visual education" movement began as early as 1908, and included the use of visual media, such as films, slides, and photographs for educational purposes. The first use of instructional films in the United States was in 1910. -
Instructional Radio
By the 1920s and 1930s, many people claimed that radio would completely change education. However, as can be seen today, radio never had a major impact on instructional practices. -
World War II
Due to the outbreak of World War II, not much attention was paid to audiovisual instruction during this time. However, many training films were produced to be used in the military services and were regarded as effective training tools. -
Army Half Track
The army half track was a type of military vehicle utilized in WWII and during the Cold War. -
Media Research
After the success of audiovisual training in the war, there was renewed interest in using such devices in schools. Many research studies were conducted to understand how audiovisual materials affected learning. -
Television
During the 1950s, there was increased interest in utilizing the television as an instructional tool. The FCC set aside 242 education channels and further educational networking was funded by the Ford Foundation (which spent over $170 million). -
Programmed Instruction
The programmed instruction movement ran from the mid-1950s through the mid-1960s and had a large impact in the development of the systems approach. Using this process, developed by Skinner, effectiveness of materials in education could be collected and revised. -
Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
In the 1950s, behavioral objectives were supported by Benjamin Bloom in the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. This work explained the various types of learning outcomes and objectives that could be classified according to the type of learner. -
Sputnik
In response to Russia's launching of Sputnik in 1957, the US government began funding math and science education in the United States to create new programs. In the 1960s, instructors realized many of the new programs were not very effective. -
Criterion-Referenced Testing Movement
Criterion-referenced testing was a very important factor in the development of instructional design in the 1960s. These tests were intended to measure how well an individual can perform a behavior, not taking into account the performance of other students. -
Behavioral Objectives
The concept of behavioral objectives has been discussed as far back as the 1900s, but was popularized by Robert Mager in 1962. Behavioral objectives could serve as the basis for evaluating the effectiveness of instruction. -
Instructional Television
After the initial boom of funding and interest in instructional television, much of the interest waned. Teachers resisted the use of televisions in their classrooms, and the expense of installing televisions was too great. Television alone could not adequately educate students. -
Conditions of Learning
The Conditions of Learning was written by Robert Gagné in 1965. Gagné described five types of learning outcomes: verbal information, intellectual skills, psychomotor skills, attitiudes, and cognitive strategies. -
Events of Instruction
Also included in Gagné's The Conditions of Learning were the nine events of instruction that he considered essential for learning. His work in learning hierarchies had a significant impact on the instructional design field. -
Formative Evaluation
Formative Evaluation was a process created by Michael Scriven in 1967. This process enabled educators to evaluate the effectiveness of materials while they were still being created. This allowed teachers to revise their materials before they were finalized. -
Summative Evaluation
Summative evaluation, a term coined by Michael Scriven in 1967, described the opposite of formative evaluation. That is, materials that are put into practice in the classroom with no prior evaluations of effectiveness. -
Instructional Design Models
During the 1970s, there was a boom of instructional design models that built on prior work. By the end of the 70s, more than 40 new models had been identified. -
Early Computers (until 1995)
Computers were first used as an instructional tool as early as the 1950s. However, the real enthusiasm for embracing computers in the classroom came in the 1980s, a few years after computers were available to the general public. -
Cognitive Psychology
During the 1980s, educators were interested in how cognitive psychology could be incorporated into the instructional design process. -
Constructivism
During the 1990s, constructivism affected the instructional design field greatly. Constructivism is a collection of similar views of learning and instruction that gained increasing popularity throughout the decade. -
The Internet
The Internet has taken off as a method of instructional technology in schools, universities, and even the military. The percentage of schools that had access to the internet in 1995 was 50%, in 1998 was 90%, and today is likely nearing 100% of all schools. -
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