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Beginning of Instructional Media
The first traces of media usage for instructional purposes were found in the first decade of the twentieth century. School museums were established that housed the instructional materials used in public school systems. -
First School Museum
The first school museum opened in 1905 in St. Louis, MO. It was shortly followed by museum openings in PA and OH. -
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Visual Instruction Movement
In 1913, Thomas Edison claimed that books would soon be obsolete in educational settings and that all instruction could be done through films. Within the following ten years, the visual instruction movement grew, although not in the way Edison predicted. Five professional organizations were established, five journals were published, more than twenty training institutions were built, and more than a dozen school systems offered courses all relating to visual education and instruction. -
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Audiovisual Instruction Movement
Throughout the end of the 1920s and into the late 1930s, radio broadcasting became increasingly popular adding an audio component to visual media. Although the technology of the field continued to advance, the community surrounding the field did not grow alongside it (McCLuskey, 1981). -
Behavioral Objectives Movement
Known as the father of the behavioral objectives movement, Ralph Tyler directed the Eight-Year study which demonstrated the success of writing instructional objectives in behavioral terms. Ralph Tyler wrote that "each objective must be defined in terms which clarify the kind of behavior which the course should help to develop" (Walbesser & Eisenberg, 1972). These objectives could then be referred to when evaluating the successfulness of the instruction (Borich, 1980; Tyler, 1975). -
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World War II
WWII saw an increase in the amount of technology being used for instruction in the United States. In 1941, the U.S. Government created the Division of Visual Aids for War Training which produced 457 films used to train the armed forces. It also saw the first origins of instructional design. Researchers like Robert Gagne, Leslie Briggs and John Flanagan studied the most effective forms of instruction and influenced the training materials that were created (Baker, 1973; Saettler, 1990). -
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Instructional Technology Process
During this time, many professionals in the field began to view instructional technology as a process rather than as media. The definitions that came about during this time were more focused on what instructional problems were arising and what solutions could be found and implemented to solve them. The definitions also included the idea that IDT can have human and nonhuman solutions rather than only media solutions. -
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Instructional Television Boom
Throughout the 1950s, the popularity of television increased. The Ford Foundation invested more than $170 million on educational television during this time, but turned its focus to public television by the mid 1960s (Gordon, 1970; Blakely, 1979). -
Educational Television
In 1952, the Federal Communications Commission reserved 242 channels to be used for educational reasons only. This sparked an interest in public television, which had more than 50 channels by 1960 (Blakely, 1979). -
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Programmed Instruction Movement
In 1954, B.F. Skinner wrote an article titled "The Science of Learning and the Art of Teaching" that sparked new interest in education. Skinner coined the term "programmed instructional materials", stating that they help increase the human ability to learn when presented properly. With colleagues, Skinner created an education movement that focused on collecting data and identifying weakness, then editing materials accordingly (cf. Lumsdaine & Glaser, 1960). -
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
Benjamin Bloom and colleagues published "Taxonomy of Educational Objectives", which outlined the various types of learning outcomes within the cognitive domain (Bloom, Engelhart, Furst, Hill, & Krathwohl, 1956). They noted that the objectives of learning should be outlined by the learner and that the outcomes should follow the hierarchical relationships between them. This work had significant implications for many other educators and the systematic design of instruction. -
The Launch of Sputnik
Unknowingly, the launch of Sputnik in 1957 set off a cascade of events that had a major impact on the process of instructional design. Following the launch, the U.S. Government poured millions of dollars into the advancement of the sciences and math. Many ID models and materials were created and were, eventually, found to be quite ineffective. Many professionals pointed out the need for evaluations and revisions for all instructional materials both during and after the design process. -
Preparing Objectives for Programmed Instruction
Robert Mager wrote "Preparing Objectives for Programmed Instruction" after identifying teachers' inability to create objectives and programs (Mager, 1962). The book is still widely popular today, as it is in its second edition and has sold over 1.5 million copies. "The book describes how to write objectives that include a description of desired learner behaviors, the conditions under which the behaviors are to be performed, and the standards by which the behaviors are to be judged" (Reiser, 13). -
The Conditions of Learning
In 1962, Robert M. Gagne published "The Conditions of Learning", a book describing what he thought to be the five domains of learning outcomes: "verbal information, intellectual skills, psychomotor skills, attitudes, and cognitive strategies" (Reiser, 14). He also discusses nine teaching activities, or events of instruction, that are essential to achieving any learning outcome. -
Criterion-Referenced Measures
Robert Glaser coined the term "criterion-referenced measures". This new idea is "intended to measure how well an individual can perform a particular behavior... irrespective of how others perform" (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018, 14). This contrasts norm-referenced tests, which were designed to separate learners, i.e. some did well and others did poorly. This new form of testing was used to assess students' entry-level behaviors and determine their ability to succeed in instructional programs. -
Contingencies of Reinforcement
In 1969, B.F. Skinner published "Contingencies of Reinforcement", a book that outlined his theory of behavioral learning and the importance of reinforcement. Skinner spent his career studying the psychology of behavior and how it relates to learning. His theories on behavior modification for learning influenced many others and the idea of instructional feedback, Skinner's concept of reinforcement, was born of his research. -
The ADDIE Model
Since the 1970s, many models for instructional design have been created with five main elements. These elements have widely become known as the ADDIE model, which is an acronym for Analyze, Design, Develop, Implement, and Evaluation. This model remains one of the most effective design tools, with some limitations. It has "become a colloquial term used to describe a systematic approach to instructional design" (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018, 24). -
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Cognitive Information Processing Theory
Throughout the 1970s, the cognitivist theory of learning grew in popularity. It differs from the behaviorist theory in that it focuses more on the internal processes within learners, specifically where memory is concerned. Sensory, short-term, and long-term memory are vital processes within the brain that the cognitivist theory targets, as well as things such as attention, encoding, and retrieval. -
Instructional Design in the Military
Throughout the 1970s, the field of instructional design grew tremendously as did the number of models available. In 1975, U.S. military branches adopted models to help create and modify training materials (Branson et al., 1975). During this time, ID graduate programs were created and businesses implemented programs to improve the quality of the training they gave to their employees. Many countries like South Korea and Indonesia used ID to solve problems they were finding within their education. -
The 1977 Definition
The Association for Educational Communication and Technology created a new definition for the field of IDT. Most noteworthy of this definition is its length and use of new terminology. It included "sixteen statements spread over seven pages of text, followed by nine pages of tables... as well as nine more chapters that provided further elaboration" (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018, 3). It also used terms such as "human learning problems" and "solutions" which pushed the focus of IDT to human performance. -
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Personal Computers
During the 1980s, ID lost steam in the field of education. However, the increasing popularity of personal computers had a large impact on ID. Many began to use computers for the purpose of instruction which turned many to focus on developing new models and programs for computers (Dick, 1987; Shrock, 1995). By January 1983, more than 40% of elementary schools and 75% of secondary schools were using computers for instructional purposes (Center for Social Organization of Schools, 1983) -
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90s: Age of Performance
Starting in the 1990s, the field of ID turned its focus to human performance and how it could be improved within educational settings and the workplace. Professionals also tried creating tasks that were designed to be more realistic and relate to real-world environments and problems. During this time, computers continued to gain popularity as an instructional tool as well as a tool to improve workplace performance. -
Dick, Carey, and Carey
The Dick, Carey, and Carey model, as outlined in their book, "The Systematic Outline of Instruction" (2015), presents a linear depiction of another widely popular instructional design model. This model is important as, although it is presented in a linear fashion, the arrows allow the process to come full circle. This is an excellent example of how the instructional design process is "an overlapping, recurring, and iterative process" (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018, 24). -
Present Day Instructional Design
Today, the Internet dominates the way we live our lives. In all levels of education there is an increased usage of the Internet for instruction and training. Mobile devices, social media and performance support have decreased the need for formal training but have greatly increased the need for skilled professionals in the field of ID. As the Internet and use of technology grows, so does the field of instructional design and technology. -
Present Day Instructional Media
Several studies have outlined the developments have occurred in the field of IT. In 2011, one study found that approximately 32% of students in higher learning were taking at least one online course (Allen & Seaman, 2013). Another study in 2014 found that 41% of the training in business was delivered via technology (ATD Research, 2015a). Lastly, a study in 2015 noted that 64% of college students reported that they used smartphones for schoolwork at least 2-3x a week (Pearson, 2015a).
