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First catalog of instructional films published in the United States
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One of the first textbooks on visual instruction defines the field
One of the first textbooks on visual instruction defines the field as, "the enrichment of education through the ‘seeing experience’ [involving] the use of all types of visual aids such as the excursion, flat pictures, models, exhibits, charts, maps, graphs, stereographs, stereopticon slides, and motion pictures." -
Department of Visual Instruction (DVI) formed
Three national professional organizations for visual instruction merge to form the Department of Visual Instruction (DVI) -
BF Skinner publishes, "Behavior of Organisms
BF Skinner advocated an approach to learning the focused on behavior. He believed, "that learning can be understood, explained, and predicted entirely on the basis of observable events - namely, the behavior of the learner along with its environmental antecedents and consequences." -
US government established the Division of Visual Aids for War Training
From 1941-1945 this department oversaw the production of 457 training films for preparing US civilians to work in the industry during WWII -
US Army Air Force began producing instructional training films
From 1943-1945 the US Army Air Force produced over 400 training films and 600 film strips during WWII -
In the 1950s learning theory began to shift to cognitive sciences
In the early 1950s, learning theory began to shift from a focus on behavioral models to an approach that relied on learning theories and models from the cognitive sciences. -
FCC establishes educational television channels
Federal Communications Commission set aside 242 television channels for educational purposes -
BF Skinner published article, “The Science of Learning and the Art of Teaching”
This article began a minor revolution in the field of education, introduced the idea that instruction should be provided in small steps -
Soviet Union launches Sputnik
Soviet Union launches Sputnik, the first orbiting space satellite, prompting the US government to put millions of dollars in funding math and science education, instructional materials were developed by subject experts and were implemented without testing with learners with little success -
Criterion-Referenced Testing emerges
Criterion-Referenced testing emerges in the early 1960s intended to measure how well an individual can perform a particular behavior regardless of how well other students perform -
Robert Mager published "Preparing Objectives for Programmed Instruction"
Robert Mager recognized the need to teach educators how to write objectives -
First definition of educational technology approved by major professional organization
The first definition of educational technology was approved and published by a major professional organization. The definition focused on, "the design and use of messages which control the learning process." -
The Conditions of Learning published by Robert Gagne
Robert Gagne publishes The Conditions of Learning describing the five types of learning outcomes: verbal information, intellectual skills, psychomotor skills, attitudes, and cognitive strategies -
Gagne's Events of Instruction are published
Robert Gagne proposes there are nine events necessary for instruction:
1. Gaining attention
2. Informing the learner of the objective
3. Stimulating recall of prior learning
4. Presenting the stimulus
5. Providing learning guidance
6. Eliciting performance
7. Providing feedback
8. Assessing performance
9. Enhancing retention and transfer -
Michael Scriven coins the term formative evaluation
Michael Scriven coins the term formative evaluation describing the tryout and revision process of instructional tools, identified the need for instructional materials to be tested with learners and then revised based on the results -
Atkinson and Shriffin publish "Human Memory: A Proposed System and its Control Processes"
Atkinson and Shriffin proposed a multistage theory of memory that is regarded as the basis for information processing theory. Three memory systems in the learner (sensory, short-term, and long-term memory) are assumed to receive information from the environment and transform it for storage and use in memory and performance. -
The Commission on Instructional Technology publishes two definitions
"[instructional technology] means the media born of the communications revolution which can be used for instructional purposes alongside the teacher, textbook, and blackboard..."
"It is a systematic way of designing, carrying out, and evaluating the whole process of learning and teaching in terms of specific objectives, based on research on human learning and communication, and employing a combination of human and nonhuman resources to bring about more effective instruction." -
The view of Cognitivism rose to prominence
In the 1970s, the view of information processing theory began to be adopted by researchers and practitioners. Variations of cognitivism are still being investigated today. -
US military adopts an instructional design model
branches of the US military adopted an instructional design model intended to guide the development of training materials within each branch -
Computer use for instruction increases
Computers were used for instruction in 40 percent of elementary schools and more than 75 percent in all secondary schools across the country -
Human performance movement
1990s began a human performance movement emphasizing on job performance, business results, and noninstructional solutions to performance problems broadening the scope of instructional design -
AECT publishes "Instructional Technology: The Definitions and Domains of the Field
AECT defines instructional technology as, "the theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation of processes and resources for learning." -
AECT Definitions and Terminology Committee updates definition
The definition of instructional technology is updated to include the goal of "improving performance."
"Educational technology is the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using, and managing appropriate technological processes and resources." -
College students use modern technology for schoolwork
A 2015 study found 64 percent of college students say they use a smart phone for their schoolwork multiple times a week, 40 percent of college students they use tablets for their schoolwork