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Period: 1530 to
Period 1530 - 1760
(All images are cited in the parent presentation.) -
1532
Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres
Nicholaus Copernicus (1473 - 1543) was a man of varied studies (math, astronomy, medicine, law) who ultimately redefined one of the most basic premises of modern science. His studies led him, unlike Aristotle, to the conclusion that the earth revolved around the sun - a heliocentric system. Although he had no intent of questioning church authority, moving the Earth away from the “center of the universe” necessarily put him at odds with existing dogma. -
1540
Ignatius Loyola founds Jesuits
Ignatius Loyola was born in 1491 and was widely experienced (civil administration, military) before dedicating himself to the church. Approved by Pope Paul III in 1540, Loyola’s Society of Jesus (aka Jesuit Order) was designed as a missionary arm of the Catholic church. Sent across the globe, their efforts were perhaps most notable in Asia where they thoroughly integrated themselves into Chinese and Japanese societies, aiming for influence rather than outright conversion. -
1545
Council of Trent
The Council of Trent met in phases from 1545 to 1563. It was called under papal authority to answer the challenge, both direct and indirect, of the Protestant Reformation. Theological challenges were answered, and reforms were initiated. The councils signal the beginning of the “Catholic Counter Reformation”, or just “Catholic Reformation”. As a result, the Catholic Church was somewhat stabilized and many previous members returned. -
1559
Index Librorum Prohibitorum
The Index Librorum Prohibitorum was a list of books banned under papal authority. Even though earlier - or similar - versions can be found, Pope Paul IV published what would become the first official list in 1559. An attempt to maintain Catholic primacy, the first list was considered severe, even amongst Catholics. It was constantly republished until 1966. Most works of Protestant reformers were banned. The same would happen with many thinkers of the Scientific Revolution. -
Tychonic System
Tycho Brahe (1546 - 1601) was renowned for his observational capabilities and instrumentation (at his self-designed observatory in Uraniborg, Denmark). In opposition to both Aristotle and Copernicus, he released his own model of the solar system in which the Sun was the center for all but the Earth. Everything revolved around the Sun, and then that system revolved around the Earth. Even if wrong, his observations would be well-utilized by future astronomers. -
Defeat of the Sonhai Empire
After succession crises and internal unrest (Mohamed I died in 1528), the once-powerful Islamic Soghai Empire was left vulnerable to invasion. That invasion finally came from the north and the Moroccan Empire in 1590. Even though Sonhai warriors were among the most capable cavalry in the world at the time, they proved no match for the new gun powder weapons that had begun to shape modern warfare. -
The Sidereal Messenger
Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642) made several contributions to science, perhaps most notably with his confirmation of the (by then heretical) Copernican system publishing The Sidereal Messenger in 1610. Using his own observations, some made with the telescope that he helped to perfect, he documented moons orbiting around Jupiter, phases on Venus, Sunspots, and topography on our own Moon. -
Thirty Years War
From 1618 to 1648, the Thirty Years War ravaged central Europe. At its heart, it was a religious war. The Holy Roman Empire attempted to maintain control of a multitude of small subordinate states, many of whom were heavily influenced by the Protestant Reformation and until 1635, is was essentially a civil war between these states. After larger European states became involved, the bloodshed only grew worse. Upwards of 50% of the population in some of these pre-Germanic states would perish. -
Epitome of Copernican Astronomy
Johannes Kepler (1571 - 1630), who had initially worked under Tycho Brahe, was a defender of the Coperican heliocentric system. Motivated in part by the need to reconcile the observed movements of Mars, he added his own understanding of planetary elliptical orbits onto the previous concept of a perfectly spherical construction of the solar system. -
Battle of Breitenfeld
The reforms of Gustavus Adolphus were on display at the Battle of Breitenfeld defeating the Catholic League. As King of Sweden, he made a large state army based upon regional units. He also standardized the weaponry (especially firearms and artillery) that his army used - his more professional army was better able to drill with these weapons. Units were more mobile and responsive to command. Essentially, he laid the groundwork for a modern state at war. -
Discourse on the Method
Rene Descartes (1596 - 1650) was a mathematician and natural scientist. He published multiple works with Discourse on the Method being first. Most widely know for the quote, “I think, therefore I am”. -
Peace of Westphalia
The Peace of Westphalia settled the Thirty Years War in 1648. Larger combatant victors like Sweden and France benefitted most territorially. The sovereignty of the smaller subordinate states within the Holy Roman Empire, as well as a general religious tolerance, was upheld. The Holy Roman Empire was significantly weakened just as overall region was left reeling after years of conflict. -
Principia (The Mathematical Principle of Natural Philosophy)
Isaac Newton (1643 - 1727) was, perhaps, the most important figure in the birth of modern physics. In addition to his studies on the properties of light, Principia detailed what are known as Newton’s Three Laws of Motion. 1 - A body at rest tends to stay at rest unless acted upon. 2 - The change of motion is proportional to the force initiating the change. 3 - Every action requires an equal and opposite reaction. -
Two Treatises of Government
John Locke (1632 - 1704) was an English philosopher who had a dramatic impact upon the world that would follow, namely the American and French Revolutions. He believed that individuals were given fundamental rights over their own lives and that the rights of rulers were accordingly circumscribed. He believed that rights to life, liberty, and property were provided by basic natural law. -
Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 - 1778) was a Swiss philosopher who believe that people are inherently good, but that the social structure around them is not necessarily so. Famous for the quote, “man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains.” He lamented property as a “fatal” concept that was far from the natural order where none owned property. -
Candide
Voltaire (1694 - 1778) was a French philosopher and prime Enlightenment thinker. He believed in freedom of speech (“I may disagree with you, but I will defend to the death your right to say it”), freedom of religion, and separation of church and state.