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Chapter 1: The Development Through Life Perspective
1) How the biological, psychological and societal systems interact together; biopsychosocial 2) The psychological system is our "meaning-making" system. It seeks out information, integrates information from other sources, and evaluates experiences as POSITIVE, NEGATIVE, ENCOURAGING, or THREATENING. 3) The biological system is responsible for the physical functioning of the organism 4) The societal system incorporates social roles, social support, culture and other factors into development. -
Case Study: Ruth Hamilton Chapter 1
Ruth was a woman who lived a long and successful life and passed away at 110 years old. She became a teacher after high school and married her husband in 1921. She became one of the first female radio talk show hosts in America, and continued to pioneer the way for not only herself, but others who followed in her footsteps. Her long life proves there is constant development. She changed biologically, socially, and psychologically. She overcame challenges to make a fulfilling life for herself. -
Chapter 2: Major Theories For Understanding Human Development
What is a Theory?
1) A logical system of concepts that help explain observations and contribute to the body of knowledge
2) Logical and Consistent
3) It should be simple, with little reliance on assumptions, constructs, and propositions What Questions Should a Theory Answer?
1) What phenomena is the theory trying to explain?
2) What assumptions are made?
3) What does the theory predict? -
Most Important Theories: Chapter 2
1) The Theory of Evolution
- Those most fit for their environment are more likely to survive (natural selection)
- Changes over time result in adaptation to environment 2) Psychoanalytic Theory
- Focuses on the impact of sexual and aggressive drives on one's individual psychological functioning 3) Cognitive Development Theories
- Focuses on how knowing emerges and changes into logical and systematic capacities for both reasoning and problem solving -
Most Important Theories: Chapter 2 Cont.
4) Theories of Learning
- Human abilities can be manipulated to achieve different goals 5) Cultural Theory
- Learned systems of meaning and patterns of behaviors shared by a group of people and passed onto every generation 6) Social Role Theory
- The process of socialization and personality development through participation in social roles 7) Systems Theory
- Attempts to describe and account for the characteristics of systems and the relationships found within the system -
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development; 4 Major Stages: Chapter 2
1) Sensorimotor Intelligence
- Birth to 18 months
- Allows infants organize and exercise control over environment 2) Preoperational Thought
- When a child learns to talk until 5-6 years old
- Development of language, imitation, imagery, symbolic play, and drawing skills 3) Concrete Operational Thought
- 6/7 to 11 or 12
- Appreciate casual relationships
- Categories, classification systems, hierarchies 4) Formal Operational Thought
- Adolescence to adulthood
- Laws/rules for problem solving -
Piaget Image
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Sensorimotor Intelligence
"...is characterized by the formation of increasingly complex sensory and motor schemes that allow infants to organize and exercise some control over their environment." (Chapter 2, page 15) -
Vygotsky's Concepts of Cognitive Development: Chapter 2
1) Culture as a Mediator of Cognitive Structuring
- Development is understood through culture 2) Movement from INTERmental to INTRAmental
- High level mental functions begin in external activity
- Inter = between minds
- Intra = relationship between desired goal and the outcome 3) Inner Speech
- Central role in self-regulation, goal attainment, practical problem solving 4) The Zone of Proximal Development
- Distance between actual development and the potential development -
Vygotsky Image
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Chapter 4: The Period of Pregnancy and Prenatal Development
- Genetics and Development
- Normal Fetal Development
- The Birth Process
- The Mother, the Fetus, and the psychosocial environment
- The Cultural context of pregnancy and childbirth
- Applied Topic: What is Abortion?
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Development in Each Trimester: Chapter 4
1st Trimester
- 3 periods; germinal, embryonic, and fetal
- Most women don't know they're pregnant 2nd Trimester
- Uterus stretches and grows
- A quickening of early fetal movements: light bubbles/twitches, and movement from a foot, elbow, or fist
- 4th month = suck/swallow
- 5th month = skin thickens
- 6th month = sensory receptors fully establish 3rd Trimester
- Fetus typically grows to 20 inches and about 7 lbs
- Central nervous system matures
- Fetus is sensitive to music and speech -
The Birth Process: Chapter 4
Stages of Labor
1) Uterine contractions and dilation of cervix; longest stage of labor
2) Expulsion of fetus
3) Expulsion of placenta; lasts 5-10 minutes Psychological Adaptation
1) Early signs labor is approaching
2) Strong uterine contractions
3) Transition phase - contractions are strong, rest is short
4) Birth process
5) Post-partum with interactions with newborn and psychological changes including the returning home period -
Adequacy vs. Vulnerability: Chapter 4
- Pregnancy is a sign of sexual prowess and additional social status (Adequacy)
- Some cultures view pregnancy as a weakness and a vulnerability among women; evil spirits may be attached to this belief (Vulnerability)
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Solicitude vs. Shame: Chapter 4
- Shows in care, interest, and help of others
- Some cultures show care, worry, and protection over the fetus (Solicitude)
- Other cultures show shame and want to hide the pregnancy (Shame)
- Directly relates to birth culture; the beliefs, values, and guidelines for behavior regarding pregnancy and childbirth
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Key Milestones in Pregnancy: Chapter 4
Physical
- Changing uterus places pressure on other internal organs
- Changes body image and self-image
- Pregnancy symptoms: nausea, swelling, backache, headache Emotional
- Positive or negative emotions finding out about being pregnant
- Increase in stress, anxiety, depression
- Worries about childbirth Cognitive/Social
- May be treated differently by others around them
- Fathers become more supportive/concerned
- Pregnancy can affirm gender identity
- Pregnant teens may feel shame and guilt -
Motor Development: Chapter 5
- Begins in prenatal period with fetus movement
- Infant reflexes turn into involuntary or voluntary behaviors over time
- 1st week of life = involuntary grasp reflex; later turns into purposeful grasping
- By 12 months, pincer grasp has been established
- Holding head up
- Rolling over
- Sitting
- Crawling
- Standing
- Walking -
Trust vs. Mistrust: Chapter 5
Erik Erikson
- Suggests that the first 2 years set the foundation for whether infants feel safe in the world Trust
- An appraisal of the availability, dependability, and sensitivity of another person
- An emotion within infants
- Develop a sense of self value and trustworthiness Mistrust
- Lack of confidence in caregiver
-Doubt of one's lovableness
- By 6 months, infants can show stranger anxiety
- All infants will experience some form of mistrust -
The Prime Adaptive Ego Quality and the Core Pathology: Chapter 5
Hope
- Erikson theorized that the positive resolution of the psychosocial crisis of trust vs. mistrust leads to hope
- Continues throughout the entire life story
- Connects to goals and dreams -
Development of Attachment: Chapter 5
1) Birth - 3 months
- sucking, grasping, smiling, gazing, crying to maintain closeness, cuddling, gazing 2) 3 to 6 months
- more responsive to familiar figures 3) 6 to 9 months
- physical proximity and contact with attachment objects 4) 9 to 12 months
- mental representation of attachment objects and expecting caregiver's response 5) 12 months on
- variety of behaviors to satisfy safety and closeness needs -
Case Study: A Close Look at a Mother-Infant Interaction Chapter 5
The infant grasps their mother's hair, exhibiting signs that they have the desire to be close to their mother. However, when the mother says "ow," the baby is startled by the tone of voice, resulting in their release of the hair. When the mother realized what she did and the immediate change in her child, she responded with a positive tone of voice, cooing, and trying to restore the trust her child has. Erikson's theory of Trust vs. Mistrust in this stage is evident within this case study. -
Chapter 5: Infancy (First 24 Months)
- Newborns
- Developmental Tasks
- The Psychosocial Crisis: Trust vs. Mistrust
- The Central Process for Resolving the Crisis:
- Mutuality with the Caregiver
- The Prime Adaptive Ego Quality and the Core Pathology
- Applied Topic: The Role of Parents
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Postpartum Depression and "Baby Blues": Chapter 5
Baby Blues
- Can occur a few days to weeks after birth
- Mood swings, sadness, crying, appetite problems, trouble sleeping, anxiety, irritability, overwhelmed, reduced concentration Postpartum Depression
- Symptoms are stronger and last longer
- Feeling like a "bad" mom
- Loss in pleasure of doing activities
- Feelings of worthlessness
- Thoughts of death/suicide
- Harming the baby
- Panic attacks Treatments
- Anti-depressants
- Therapy
- Early detection is crucial -
Trust vs. Mistrust
"Trust versus mistrust focuses on the fundamental nature of an infant's sense of connection to the social world." (Chapter 5 page 40) -
Chapter 6: Toddlerhood (2 to 4 years old)
- Developmental Tasks
- The Psychosocial Crisis: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
- The Central Process: Imitation
- The Prime Adaptive Ego Quality and the Core Pathology
- The Impact of Poverty on Psychosocial Development in Toddlerhood
- Applied Topic: Child Care
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Skill Development: Chapter 6
Motor Skill Development
- Advances in gross motor skills; walking, jumping, running
- Advances in fine motor skills Language Acquisition
- Transformation in language abilities; words and simple sentences, complex language structures Cognitive Development
- Problem solving, memory, imaginative play
- Understanding the environment and their role within it Emotional and Social Development
- Self awareness and independence
- More emotions and complex social interactions -
Piaget's Preoperational Thought of Cognitive Development: Chapter 6
- Ages 2 to 6 are for preoperational thought
- Sensorimotor schemes from infancy are internally represented
- Shows a capacity for representational thinking
- Understanding one thing can stand for another
- Representational skills let kids share experiences with others and create imagined experiences
- Semiotic thinking = children recognize and use symbols and signs
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The Psychosocial Crisis: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt: Chapter 6
- Children become aware of separateness
- Ability to behave independently
- Requires patience from parents
- Constant encouragement from parents is key to a child's success and belief in themselves Shame and Doubt
- Shame = negative evaluation of the self
- Doubt = only feel comfortable in highly structured and familiar situations with low risk
- being exposed or ridiculed; made inferior
- social ridicule/criticism
- children begin to create an image of what an ideal person looks like -
The Central Process: Imitation Chapter 6
- children observe adults and want to do the same thing
- skill learning and social cognition
- a means of participating in and sustaining social interactions and advancing social cognition
- can be a way for kids to re-establish belonging after exclusion or rejection
- highlights the central role of culture
- mirror neuron system highlights a person's ability to observe and recreate actions
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Theoretical Views About Fantasy Play: Chapter 6
Piaget
- emphasizes value of fantasy play
- kids are able to make meaning of experiences and events
- fantasy play is a private world where social rules don't apply Vygotsky
- fantasy play creates proximal development
- child behaves above their age
- foreshadows a higher level of functioning
- a window to areas of competence a child is striving to master Erikson
- vital in promoting personality and social development
- presents a problem and offers a solution -
Fantasy Play: Chapter 6
- Creates situations and characters that are private to kids
- Erikson stated that kids can express feelings through their imagination
- Imitation of parental activities
- Kids as young as 2 can differentiate between reality and make believe
- Fantasy play allows kids to direct their play in response to mental images
- Vygotsky believed that pretend play operates within a rule-bound structure
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Chapter 7: Early School Age (4 to 6 years old)
- Developmental Tasks
- The Psychosocial Crisis: Initiative vs. Guilt
- The Central Process: Identification
- The Prime Adaptive Ego Quality and the Core Pathology
- Applied Topic: School Readiness
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Developmental Tasks: Chapter 7
- Children begin to understand their place in the world
- Socially: they learn lessons about life like how to be a good person
- Cognitively: they understand what it means to be cherished or despised on an emotional and cognitive level
- Emotionally: begin to connect emotions such as feeling safe, loved, admired, neglected, rejected, or abused with their cognitive understanding of their place in the world
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Thinking about Gender Identification: Chapter 7
Ages 4 to 6:
- significant cognitive, emotional, and social changes to make gender more meaningful and highlight the relevance of gender for a child
- it's an early social category where children make inferences about others Gender Identification is biological, psychological, and societal
- biological = brain organization and physical capacities
- societal = socialization pressures and understanding demands to create positive actions
- psychological = understanding of male and female -
Moral Development Theories: Chapter 7
Piaget
- Focuses on moral reasoning
- 2 stages; heteronomous morality and autonomous morality
- Heteronomous = rules are seen as fixed and unchanged
- Autonomous = rules are created by people and can be changed Lawrence Kohlberg
- Extension of Piaget's theory
- 3 levels of moral development with 2 subsections each
- Pre confrontational level; obedience and self-interest
- Conventional level; conformity and law/order
- Post Conventional level; social contract and universal ethical principles -
Theories Cont. Chapter 7
Psychoanalytic Theory
- Moral sense develops as a result of strong parental identification
- Child's consciousness is an internalization of parental values and moral standards Object Relations Theory
- The critical time for moral development is infancy rather than early-school age years Evolutionary Theory
- Emphasizes emotional and cognitive aspects to morality Self Theory
- To make transactions between self and the world as positive and beneficial as possible -
The Psychosocial Crisis: Initiative vs. Guilt: Chapter 7
Children attempt to discover stability, strength, and regularity in the world because they've found it in themselves Initiative
- Erikson says it's the active and conceptual investigation of the world
- Manifestation of "I"
- Crisis is resolved positively when children develop the sense that an active, questioning investigation of the environment is informative and pleasurable Guilt
- Feeling that one has been responsible for an unacceptable thought, fantasy, or action
- Connected to remorse -
The Central Process: Identification Chapter 7
- Key in the resolution of initiative vs. guilt
- Striving to enhance self concepts
- Children realize their dependence on their parents
- Some require the need for status and power; modeling of behavior of someone who controls resources
- Parental Identification can be positive or negative
- Child's need to question existing norms and the emerging feelings of moral concern when norms are violated -
The Central Process: Education Chapter 8
- Culture's way of passing knowledge from one generation to the next
- Socioeconomic status and student achievements are strongly related, especially in the United States
- Failure in school and public ridicule can result in negative self image; inferiority
- School is a symbol of cultural authority
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Chapter 8: Middle Childhood (6 to 12 years)
- Developmental Tasks
- The Psychosocial Crisis: Industry vs. Inferiority (Erikson)
- The Central Process: Education
- The Prime Adaptive Ego Quality and the Core Pathology
- Applied Topic: Violence in the Lives of Children
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Key Characteristics of Concrete Operational Thought: Chapter 8
Created by Piaget 1) Conservation
- Certain properties of objects stay the same despite changes in form or arrangement 2) Classification
- Ability to group objects 3) Seriation
- Capacity to arrange in orderly fashion 4) Reversibility
- Understanding objects can be changed and returned back to original form 5) Logical Thinking
- Reason, form conclusions, and solve problems from concrete evidence and facts -
The Psychosocial Crisis: Industry vs. Inferiority Chapter 8
Erik Erikson
Industry
- Competence and productivity
- taking pride in accomplishments and abilities Inferiority
- Feelings of failure in comparison to peers
- Low self esteem and reluctance to pursue new challenges Strategies for Kids
- Set achievable goals
- Skill development; engage in activities to develop new skills
- Self Reflection
- Peer Support Strategies for Parents
- Positive Reinforcement
- Encourage Independence
- Model Resilience
- Create a Supportive Environment -
Case Study: Becca Chapter 8
Becca, an 8th grader has been disengaging from school, with dropping grades, and isolating herself from peers. This is inferiority because Becca is no longer confident in herself, and she has no interest in reaching a high academic standard in which she had previously maintained. This can be happening for many reasons. The case study says she has been burdened by her family, and therefore has lost interest in maintaining A grades. She stays silent in class so teachers will leave her alone.