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1346
The Bubonic Plague
The Bubonic Plague was a deadly plague that killed millions across Europe. It was caused by the Yersinia Pestis. The plague was aggravated by the living conditions and populations dropped to an all-time low. It died down around 1351 -
May 29, 1453
The Fall of Constantinople
The Ottoman Empire captured Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire. After 55 days of attacks, the Ottomans entered the city walls and captured it. Sultan Mehmed surrounded Constantinople from land and sea while using cannon to maintain a constant attack of the city’s walls. -
Apr 13, 1455
Invention of the Printing Press
Johannes Gutenberg created the first automated printing press during the Northern Rennaisance. This allowed the spread of renaissance ideas all over Europe. Books and articles could be mass printed and sent all over Europe. -
May 22, 1455
First Battle of St. Albans
This Battle marks the beginning of the War of the Roses. Richard Duke of York assembled his private armies in the north and marched south to confront the Lancastrian King Henry VI at St Alban's. Richard wounded Henry's guards and injured him, ending the battle. -
1478
The Spanish Inquisition
It was established by the Catholic Monarchs, King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile to combat heresy in Spain. They went after Protestants, Jews, and Muslims. They killed and tortured them. They were also forced to convert to Catholicism. It was abolished in 1834 by a Royal Decree signed by regent Maria Cristina de Borbon. -
Aug 22, 1483
Battle of Bosworth Field
This was the last significant battle of the War of the Roses. King Richard III is defeated and killed by Henry Tutor, the Earl of Richmond. Henry seized the crown by right of conquest and he is the first Tutor king, a line that is continued to this day. -
Oct 11, 1492
Columbus Lands in the New World
Columbus lands in what is now the Bahamas on the island that is now known as San Salvador. He landed with three ships, the Nina, the Pinta, and the Santa Maria. He was funded by the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, King Ferdinand II, and Queen Isabella. -
1503
Leonardo Da Vinci starts the Mona Lisa
This is one of Da Vinci's most famous paintings, maybe even the most famous in the world. It is one of the masterpieces of the Italian Rennaisance. No one knows who is exactly painted but there are many theories. The painting was found in Da Vinci's studio when he died and now is displayed in the Louvre Museum in Paris. -
Sep 4, 1510
Raphael starts The School of Athens
This painting was commissioned by Pope Julius II. There are many greek and roman aspects and figures. It includes many mathematicians, philosophers, and scientists all from different times. It is the epitome of renaissance art and has many aspects of art at the time like symmetry. This painting is on display in the Vatican. -
Jul 1, 1512
Michelangelo Paints the Sistine Chapel
This was commissioned by Pope Julius II in 1508. It is located in Vatican City. He painted the fresco from 1508-1512. There are three sections to the ceiling. The Creation of the Heavens and Earth, The Creation of Adam and Eve and the Expulsion from the Garden of Eden, and the story of Noah and the Great Flood. It is one of the greatest pieces of Rennaisance art. -
Oct 31, 1517
Luther Posts his 95 Thesis
Luther nailed his Thesis to the Church door arguing that indulgences are wrong. This was the spark that led to the Protestant Revolution. -
1519
Hernan Cortes (Hernando Cortez) lands on the Mexican Coast
Cortes and his crew anchor in Tabasco and collected intelligence about conquering the rest of the area. He went to Veracruz next, where he was elected Chief Justice. His trip was originally canceled but Cortes sailed anyways. -
1532
Machiavelli publishes The Prince
The Prince was an outline of what Machiavelli thought was an effective leader. He is brutal and believed that a leader should do anything for their people, even if it is immoral. He wrote this in 1513 but it was only published in 1532, 5 years after his death -
1534
English Reformation Begins
The Reformation begins when King Henry VIII of England asks Pope Clement VII for an annulment to his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. After being denied, Henry broke the Church of England away from the Roman Catholic Church and declared himself the head of the Church. This allowed him to annul his marriage and marry Anne Boleyn. This reformation continued until the rule of Queen Mary, who returned England to Catholicism. -
1536
Calvin publishes Institutes of the Christian Religion
This is a pillar of Protestant theology and a defining book of the Reformation. This book shaped Calvinism as a major religion throughout Europe. He discussed predestination and other reformed Christian ideals. He emphasized the authority of the Bible and other Christian scriptures. -
Sep 17, 1539
Ignatius of Loyal establishes the Jesuit order
It is a religious order of the Catholic Church in Rome. They were known for their missionary, educational, and charitable works, and were a leading force in the modernization of the Roman Catholic Church. -
Jul 19, 1553
Mary Tudor becomes Queen of England
She was crowned after the death of her younger brother, Edward VI. She made Anglicanism the official religion of England. She aimed to return England to the Catholic Church and she persecuted many protestants in her way. She gained the nickname "Bloody Mary". She was married to Phillip II of Spain but had no children. -
1555
The Peace of Augsburg
This treaty ended the conflict between German Lutherans and German Catholics. It also established a principle that princes had the right to select Lutheranism or Catholicism within their territory. It formally acknowledged Protestantism as a legitimate religion in Europe. -
Nov 17, 1558
Elizabeth I becomes Queen of England
She was crowned at the age of 25 and ruled for 44 years. She formally established the Church of England and England prospered under her reign. She compromised between the Catholics and the Protestants. She did not marry and was known as the "Virgin Queen"; she did not have any children. England was at the peak of European culture. She raised James, son of Queen Mary of Scots and he was the next king of England. -
Aug 24, 1572
St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre
This was a massacre of French Huguenots (Calvinists) and was plotted by Catherine de Medici, the former Queen of France, and carried out by Roman Catholic nobles. Catherine's daughter, Margaret of France married Huguenot Henry of Navarre. The Huguenot nobles came to Paris and they were all massacred all over France. -
Defeat of the Spanish Armada
The Spanish Armada is defeated by the English naval force. This is important because it saved the throne of Elizabeth I and guaranteed Eglish independence from Spain. This was the end of the power of the Spanish Armada and introduced the control of the English naval force. -
Edict of Nantes
It was a law that allowed people to be Protestant in France and granted them rights. It was signed in 1598 by King Henry IV. It was signed to bring peace after the French Wars of Religion and promote unity. -
The Thirty Years War begins
This was a conflict that was fought within the Holy Roman Empire. It divided the Empire into Lutheranism and Catholicism. This war involved most of the European states, but it took place mostly in Germany. The War started when three representatives of the Holy Roman Empire were thrown out a window of the royal castle in Prague. Fighting broke out after the HRE Ferdinand II tried to impose Catholicism all over the Empire and many protestant Nobles resisted. -
Galileo published his findings
Galio published his book The Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems in which he compared the Ptolemaic system to the new Copernican System. This book defended heliocentrism, something the Church thought went against the Bible. The next year, Galileo was suspected of heresy and brought before the Roman Inquision. He was forced to recant before the Church and the book was placed on the Index of Forbidden Books. -
Descartes publishes his Scientific Method
The book, Discourse on the Method for Guiding One's Reason and Searching for Truth in the Sciences, outlined his rules for understanding the world and formed the foundation for the Scientific Method. Just before it went to print in 1633, Descartes learned of Galileo's punishment and hid the manuscripts. It was published in 1637, 12 years after his death. -
Battle of Marston Moor
This was the first Royalist defeat in the English Civil War. Prince Rupert of Rhine led the royalist army against the Parliamentarian army. The Parliamentarian army with the assistance of Scottish Converters under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell defeated the Royalist Army. -
Battle of Naseby
It was between the Parliamentary New Model Army under Oliver Cromwell and the royalists under Prince Rupert of the Palatinate. It is one of the most important battles of the English Civil War. The royalist army lost their best and most seasoned troops as well as their best officers. The royalists were defeated and King Charles fled to Leicester. Charles then later surrendered. -
Treaty of Westphalia (ends Thirty Years War)
This treaty brought an end to the Thirty Year's War. It was signed in the Westphalian towns of Münster and Osnabrück. There were delegates from many countries including France, the Holy Roman Empire, and Sweeden. The treaty confirmed the Peace of Augsburg and extended the period of religious tolerance. People were allowed to practice Lutheranism, Calvinism, or Roman Catholicism. -
Charles I is executed
The execution of King Charles put an end to the English Civil War. He was beheaded outside Banqueting House in Whitehall. Parliament took control of the country and got rid of the monarchy. His execution marked the end of the idea of an all-powerful monarch in England -
Peter the Great becomes the new Czar
Peter the Great expanded and modernized Russia. He conquered territory and expanded trading all over Europe. He built the largest army in Europe and a large navy. He forced Russian nobles to remove their beards as a way to imitate European courts. He also brought social reforms and switched the country to the Julian Calendar. He turned Russia into a powerful state in Europe. -
Isaac Newton publishes his laws
Newton publishes The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy which explains his laws of gravity and motion. It also expanded on the laws of planetary motion, following the works of Copernicus and Galileo. It also laid the foundations of classical mechanics. This was one of the most important books in the Scientific Revolution. -
English Bill of Rights
This was signed by William II and Mary II who were co-rulers after overthrowing James II. This law gave Parliament more power than the monarchy and outlined specific civil and constitutional rights. This set England to have a constitutional monarchy in the future. This was the inspiration for the American Bill of Rights. -
Beginning of the War of Spanish Succession
After the death of King Charles II of Spain, who was childless, there was a dispute over who would become the next king. He was the last male of the Spanish Habsburg. The dispute was over which family would take over. France and its allies wanted the next king to be the descendant of Louis XVI, Phillip from the house of Habsburg. Austria wanted the next king to be from the Austrian Habsburgs, Charles the son of HRE Leopold I. Austria and Britain formed an alliance and declared war on France -
Gabriel Fahrenheit makes his first glass mercury thermometer
He was the first person to make a thermometer using mercury which led to making more accurate thermometers. He used mercury instead of alcohol and water mixtures which were used at the time. He also developed the Fahrenheit system of temperature measurement. -
Diderot publishes his Encyclopedia
This was a complete collection of all of their knowledge of science, arts, and technology. It linked knowledge and established connections between subjects. It was one of the most important works of the Englishentment. -
Cesare Beccaria writes On Crimes and Punishment
This is a treatise written to condemn torture and the death penalty. He argued against torture and critically analyzed capital and cruel punishment. This work was also a founding work in the field of penology. -
Catherine the Great puts down the serf Rebellion
The Pugachev's Rebellion was a massive rebellion across Russia. Yemelyan Pugachev rallied the peasants and Cossacks and promised the serfs land of their own and freedom from their lords. Catherine sent the Russian army to put down the Rebellion, and in mid-September, the rebellion was crushed. Yemelyan Pugachev was beaded on January 21, 1775. -
Louis XVI is crowed as king
Louis XVI became the heir to the French throne after the death of his father in 1765. He married Marie Antoinette of Austria in 1770. After the death of Louis XV, Louis succeeded to the French throne. He was very dependent on his ministers and was very insecure about his power. -
Adam Smith publishes The Wealth of Nations
This book described the new capitalist system that was overtaking the old mechanistic one. He introduced his idea of a Laissez-faire economy, where the government is hands-off and does not interfere. He explained political economy and encouraged countries to adopt a free-market system. -
3rd Estate declares themselves to be the National Assembly
After the Estate General was assembled, the 3rd Estate was fed up with being outvoted by the other estates. The 3rd Estate proceeded to meet separately and called themselves the Commons. Later, they declared themselves as the National Assembly, an assembly of the people. They were adamant to run the country without the king but the king resisted. The king closed the hall where the assembly met, but the Assembly was moved to a nearby tennis court, where The Tennis Court Oath was sworn -
The Storming of Bastille
A mob gathered outside the Bastille to capture it. The mob took gunpowder and cannons, and also released prisoners. Bernard-René Jordan de Launay, the military governor of the Bastille, was supposed to be arrested and tried by a revolutionary council, but instead was murdered by the mob. This symbolized the end of the ancient regime and provided the revolutionaries with motivation. -
Women's March on Versailles
There was a scarcity of bread and high prices. Women began to march in the streets for fair bread prices and demanded more bread. The crowd marched to Versailles and demanded that they meet the king, Fighting broke out but was resolved by Marquis de Lafayette. A small group of women met with the king and he agreed to provide more bread. The crowd also demanded to see Marie Antoinette and graciously let her live. -
Louis XVI is executed
Louis was complicit with the Revolutionaries and thought that they would burn themselves out. Louis resisted popular demand to pass new laws and attempted to flee the country. He was caught and brought back to Paris and lost all of his power. He was tried before the National Convention and was found guilty. He was condemned to death. -
Napoleon overthrows the Directory
This was known as the coup of 18 Brumaire. Napoleon invaded France with his Army and overthrew the Directory. He replaced the Directory with a three-person consulate. Napoleon became the first consul. -
Height of the Reign of Terror
The Committee of Public Safety had dictatorial control over the French government. Robespierre was the leader of this Committee. They eliminated their enemies even if they were supporters. The Committee obtained the Law of 22 Prairial, year II, which suspended a suspect’s right to a public trial and to legal assistance and left the jury a choice only of acquittal or death. During the Reign of terror, more than 1,700 people were executed. -
Concordat of 1801
This was an agreement between Napoleon and the papal representatives of Roma and clerical representatives from Paris. It defined the status of the Roman Catholic Church in France and ended confiscation during the French Revolution. Napoleon has to approve bishops appointed by the pope. Churches were allowed to practice and be reestablished after the Revolution. The church was not allowed to regain the land that was sold during the Revolution. -
Battle of Austerlitz
Napoleon fought against Russia and Austria. His troops defeated the Russian and the Austrians which forced Austria to make peace with France and kept Prussia out of the anti-French alliance. This was Napoleon's final victory in his aim to control Europe. -
The Napoleonic Code is published
The Napoleonic Code was one of the first written documents of law. It organized many branches of law. It made the authority of men over their families stronger, deprived women of any individual rights, and decreased the rights of illegitimate children. All male citizens were granted equal rights and had the right to practice any religion. Colonial slavery was also reintroduced into the French territories. -
Napoleon abdicates for the first time
Napoleon was forced to abdicate after his failed invasion of Russia. The European alliance against him forced him to give up his throne with the Treaty of Fontainebleau. He was exiled to Elba, an island off the coast of Italy. He was also given sovereignty over the small country. -
Battle of Waterloo and the aftermath
Napoleon escaped Elba and made his way to France. A coalition of allies: the Austrians, British, Prussians, and Russians formed to defeat him again. Napoleon invaded Belgium, where British and Prussian troops were stationed. At the Battle of Waterloo, British forces with help from the Prussians defeated Napoleon. He was again forced to abdicate and was exiled to a British-held island, St. Helena. -
The Death of Louis XVIII
Louis XVIII was the restored Bourbon king of France. He was restored to the throne after Napoleon was exiled. When Napoleon returned for 100 days, Louis XVIII fled France but was restored to power after Napoleon was defeated. He established a constitution and was a constitutional monarch. -
The French Revolution of 1848
It is also known as the February Revolution. The revolution started as a result of mismanagement and bad harvests. As revolts were going on in Paris, the July Monarchy could not handle it and King Louis Phillip abdicated. The French Second Republic was established and the nobility are stripped of their titles. They adopt a new constitution and elect Louis Napoleon to be president. he establishes suffrage for all men in France. -
The Communist Manifesto is Published
The Communist Manifesto was written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels and became one of the principal statements of European socialists. The document wrote out Marx's solution to capitalism as a worker's revolution. He wanted the worker class to control the government to end social class society. His idea was called communism. The manifesto also predicted the revolutions in Europe. -
The Great Exhibition Opens
The Great Exhibition was an event that took place in the Crystal Palace in England to display inventions of the world. The Industrial Revolution widely influenced it to show that technology was the future. It also became a symbol of the Victorian Age and demonstrated British industrial strength. Some of the most famous inventions at the exhibition included the hydraulic press and a steam hammer. There were booths from countries around the world like the US, India, and France. -
On the Origin of Species is published.
This was a book published by Charles Darwin. His book introduced the scientific theory that populations evolve over the course of generations through a process of natural selection. The book is the foundation of the field of evolutionary biology. He introduced the idea of survival of the fittest which influenced the ideas of social Darwinism and was used to justify discrimination, imperialism, and social inequality. -
Emancipation of the Serfs
Tsar Alexander II freed the Serfs and abolished serfdom. More than 23 million people earned their freedom this way. Serfs gained the full rights of free citizens, including the right to marry without gaining consent, own property, and own a business. They were also able to buy land. This was a major reform that was a result of all of the uprisings before this. -
Reform Bill of 1867
This bill was one of many that came out of the growing movement for change. This bill gave all landowners and lodgers the right to vote. It also allowed agricultural landowners and tenants to vote with a small amount of land. This increased the voting population from one million to two million. Women were not addressed in this Bill. -
Unification of Italy
The Unification of Italy started in 1861 when the Kingdom of Italy is established after the Franco-Austrian War. The war left the northern Italian states fractured, so they voted to join the state of Piedmont-Sardinia and ultimately unite the whole peninsula. After the Franco-Prussian War, Napoleon III pulled his troops out of the Italian peninsula. The Italians annexed the Papal States and Rome to the Kingdom of Italy. They also moved the capital to Rome from Florence. -
Unification of Germany
The German Confederation was a group of 38 German states to coordinate the economies of the different countries. After the Revolution of 1848, the German Confederation collapsed. Prussia created the North German Confederation in 1867. They wanted to introduce reforms to keep Austrian influence out of the German states. Germany was officially unified in 1871 in France, where the German states' Princes proclaimed Wilhelm I of Prussia as German Emperor. -
Berlin Conference
This was a conference between 14 European countries and the US to discuss Africa's resources' control. They wanted to split up Africa and divide the resources among the Western countries. They also wanted to regulate trade and colonization in Africa. This was referred to as the Scramble for Africa. This ended the existing forms of African autonomy. -
Der Judenstaat (The Jewish State) is published
This is a pamphlet written by Theodor Herzl and was published in Vienna and Leipzig. He envisioned founding a future independent Jewish state and argued that the best way to avoid antisemitism in Europe was to create this independent Jewish state. Herzl did not believe that Jews could be integrated into other nations and were discriminated against everywhere. He also popularized the term, "Zionism". He proposed the state either be in Palestine or in Argentina. -
The Curies receive the Nobel Prize for their research
The Curies discovered radioactivity in 1902 by isolating radioactive radium salts in their lab. They found many items that also displayed radioactivity and eventually discovered two new elements, radium and polonium, that were even more radioactive than uranium. They won the Noble Prize in Physics in 1903 and Marie Curie won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1911. -
Bloody Sunday
Bloody Sunday was the beginning of the violent phase of the Russian Revolution. It was a massacre in St. Petersburg, Russia of peaceful demonstrators and was one of the main causes of the revolution. It began as a protest by industrial workers, who had terrible working conditions, low wages, and bad treatment from employers. The Tsar ordered the Imperial Guard to shoot at the unarmed crowd, killing hundreds of people. -
The Triple Entente is formed
This alliance developed from the Franco-Russian alliance, the Anglo-French Entente Cordiale, and an Anglo-Russian agreement. Russia, Great Britain, and France formed the Triple Entente to counterbalance the Triple Alliance of Germany, Italy, and Austria. They were all worried about the alliance and wanted to stop German aggression. -
The Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austria-Hungarian throne, and his wife were killed while on a military tour in Sarajevo. It was orchestrated by a Serbian nationalist group called the Black Hand to free Bosnia and Herzegovina from Austria-Hungarian rule and established a common South Slav state. His death lead Austria-Hungary to declare war on Serbia and was the spark that set off WWI. -
First Battle of Marne
This was an Allied offense against the German army which invaded Belgium and northern France. The Germans were very close to Parris and this offensive pushed them back almost 50 miles, saving Paris from capture. The French stopped the German advance and kept Germany from having a quick victory. It lasted from September 6-12. The battle ended the belief that this conflict would be short and showed that the Schlieffen Plan would fail. -
Start of the Gallipoli Campaign
The Gallipoli Campaign, also known as the Dardenelles Campaign, was a British and French attack against Turkey, intended to occupy Constantinople. The campaign was a plan to relived pressure on the Russians on the Caucasus front. The captain had bad military leadership and did not produce decisive results. The Allies had a difficult time trying to fight the Turks without a large amount of support. The campaign was abandoned in January 1916 and was a failure for the Allies. -
The Sinking of Lusitania
Germany had been using submarines called U-boats to take out any ships that might have been aiding the Allies. A German U-boat sunk the British passenger steamship, Lusitania, killing 1,195 people, including 128 Americans. This immediately strained relations between Germany and the neutral United States. The sinking also increased anti-german sentiments in the US and was one of the reasons the US joined the war. After the US joined the war, the tides turned against Germany. -
Battle of Verdun
the Battle of Verdun was between Germany and France. It was one of the longest and bloodiest battles of the war. France was almost too late in its efforts to defend Verdun. The battle was ten months, from February to December, and caused many casualties on both sides. In September, the battle turned to favor the Allies. Before this, the Germans were victorious. This battle ended as a victory for France and the allies as the Germans were halted in their plans to advance through France. -
The Battle of Jutland
The Battle of Jutland was a naval battle fought by Great Britain and Germany. It lasted two days and was the largest naval battle of WWI. Both sides heavily damaged the ships of the other side. After the first day of fighting, the British lost 14 ships and over 6,000 men but were ready for action again the next day. The Germans, who had lost 11 ships and over 2,500 men, avoided complete destruction and did not challenge the British navy. The British came out victorious. -
Battle of the Somme
The Battle of the Somme was between the Allies and the Germans. It was one of the most significant and most costly battles in WWI. The Allies wanted to push the Germans out of France and bombarded them for 8 days to destroy their front lines and eventually started advancing toward the German defense. The Allies underestimated the strength of the German defense and German fire cut down thousands of troops. On July 15, the British launched another bombardment and were able to advance. -
October Revolution
The October revolution, also known as the Bolshevik revolution, was the second revolution of 1917, the previous one happening in February. In October, a coup d'état toppled the intern government that formed after Tsar Nicholas II was removed. The revolution was led by the Bolshevik party and their leader Vladimir Lenin. They seized power and started Soviet rule in Russia, making the country communist. Lenin became the leader of the Soviet Union. -
Armistice Day
The Allied powers and Germany signed an agreement in Compiégne, France, ending WWI. Germany was the last power to agree to an armistice, the other countries like Austrian Empire and the Ottoman Empire already surrendered. The Germans were forced to sign the agreement because the Allied powers were on the verge of invading Germany and they had no more supplies. -
Paris Peace Conference.
The Allied Nations met in Paris in 1919. The conference was called to talk about the terms of peace after WWI. The Treaty of Versailles solidified peace with Germany. The Treaty of Saint-Germain formally dissolved the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The convention changed national borders and many newly independent countries were formed like Poland and Finland. The Russian Empire became the Soviet Union and the Ottoman Empire become Turkey. The League of Nations was formed to establish world peace. -
Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty of Versailles, signed at the Palace of Versailles in France, codified peace between the Allied powers and Germany. It held Germany and the other Central powers responsible for starting the war and forced harsh penalties like loss of territory, demilitarization, and massive reparations. The Treaty humiliated Germany and did not solve the tensions that led to WWI. The treaty helped fuel ultra-nationalism in Germany which eventually led to WWII. -
Hitler publishes Mein Kampf
Mein Kampf was a collection of Hiter's ideas and was his manifesto. It was a blueprint for his agenda for a Third Reich and contained the ideas of the Nazi party. He started writing the book while he was in prison for high treason. When it was first published, it was not very popular, but as the Nazi party gained more power, more copies of the book were sold. The book became Nazi propaganda and was spread throughout Germany. -
Hitler becomes Chancellor of Germany
President Hindenburg named Hitler, who was the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party or Nazi Party, Chancellor of Germany. Hiter was very charismatic and convinced people to support his party. President Hindenburg originally did not appoint Hitler as chancellor because he was intimidated by Hitler's growing popularity. After the next election, the communist party gained the most cities, which made the Nazi supporters more adamant to get Hitler into power. -
Nuremburg Race Laws are introduced
The Nazi regime introduced two new laws: The Reich Citizenship Law and The Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honor. The Nazis wanted to protect the 'Aryan race' that they believed that all germans were part of. They did not consider the Jews to be a part of this group and also believed that the Jews were inferior to the superior "Aryan race". They thought that the Jews were a threat to the Germans and that they needed to be separated to strengthen Germany. -
The Spanish Civil War starts
The Spanish Civil Wars started as a result of a revolt by right-wing military officers aimed at overthrowing the country's democratically elected republic. As the Republican government started to prioritize the army less, both financially and in its areas of use, the military grew more and more unhappy with the government. The Nationalists, the rebels, were led by Fransico Franco and received aid from Italy and Germany. The Nationalists consisted of all of the groups against the government. -
Munich Confrence
The Munich Conference was a meeting between Germany, Great Britain, France, and Italy. They allowed Germany to annex the Sudetenland, in western Czechoslovakia. They used the policy of appeasement to avoid another war with Germany. This allowed Germany to expand without any repercussions because non of the European powers wanted another world war. -
Kristallnacht
Violent anti-jewish demonstrations broke out all over Germany, Austria, and the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia. Kristallnacht (“Crystal Night”) refers to the thousands of shattered windows that littered the streets afterward. The Nazis depicted the riots as justified after the assassination of German foreign official Ernst vom Rath, who was shot by a Polish Jew a few days before this. The mobs destroyed Jewish businesses, burned synagogs, and desecrated Jewish religious artifacts. -
Germany Invades Poland
Germany invaded Poland to regain lost territory and ultimately rule their neighbor to the east. He used the 'blitzkrieg' method, which was characterized by excessive bombing to destroy the enemy's defenses, followed by a massive land invasion. German forces bomb Poland on land and by air. The Polish troops were unprepared for the attack and the resistance failed. This was the start of WWII. -
Operation Barbarossa
Operation Barbarossa was the code name for the invasion of the Soviet Union by Germany and its Axis allies. After the Soviets started occupying the Baltic states, Hiter was more motivated to invade Russia because they were very close to the Romanian oil fields, crucial to Germany's industries. He was suspicious of Stalin and could not wait until beating the other Allied powers to deal with the Soviets. The Germans failed to defeat the Russians quickly and were forced to fight on two fronts. -
Japan attacks Pearl Harbor
The Japanese imperial forces attacked Pearl Harbor Naval Base in Hawaii. This was a response to US sanctions placed after Japan declared war on China. Tensions were rising because Japan was dependent on US oil and the US was threatening to stop oil exports. An attack was expected but military officials did not think that Pearl Harbor would be attacked so it was mostly undefended. This was the breaking point for the US and they promptly joined the war on Dec 7, 1941, turning the tide of the war. -
Battle of Stalingrad
The Battle of Stalingrad was a military campaign between Russia and Germany. Stalingrad was targeted because it was an industrial center. The Russians wanted to protect the city because it bore Stalin's name. Stalin did not let anyone stop fighting even after the high casualty count. The Russians blocked the german army from supplies, and after winter set it, the German military starved and froze because they were unprepared. The battle turned the tide of the war in favor of the Allied powers. -
Invasion of Italy
This was the invasion of mainland Italian by the Allies. The Allies landed in Sicily and did not encounter any resistance from the Sicilian troops. When the Allies reached Rome, the Fascist Grand Council forced Mussolini to resign and he was arrested later that day. The Italian government agreed to surrender to the Allies. The agreement treated Italy fairly if they helped the Allies expel the Germans from Italy. -
D-day (Battle of Normandy)
D-day is regarded as the beginning of the end of WWII. The Battle of Normandy resulted in the Allied liberation of Western Europe from Nazi Germany. Thousands of Allied soldiers landed on the shores of Normandy and faced heavy resistance. Paratroopers had already landed behind enemy troops and were ready to fight. Allied air support took out bridges to hamper the German forces. The Allies forced their way through Normandy and freed northern France. -
Battle of the Bulge
The Battle of the Bulge, also known as the Ardeness Offensive, was the last German offensive in WWII. Hiter's aim was to split the Allies on their way to Germany. The Germans launched a surprise attack in the Ardeness Forest. As the Germans attacked the Allies, the Allied troop line took on the appearance of a bulge, which is what the battle is named after. The battle lasted until January 16, 1945, after the Allied counteroffensive forced German troops to withdraw. -
The Liberation of Auschwitz
Aushwitch was one of the largest concentration camps and extermination centers. The Germans always planned to abandon Auschwitz, and as they waited for Allied troops to move closer, they started to destroy evidence of their crimes. As the Soviets got closer to the camp, the Germans planned a death march which killed thousands of prisoners. Those who were too ill to march were left at the camp to starve. The Soviets found the camp on their way to Oświęcim. -
Adolf Hitler commits suicide
After the Battle of Stalingrad, the Germans acknowledged their upcoming defeat. The Generals plotted many plans to assassinate Hiter and remove him from power. Their plans failed and in retaliation, Hitler executed thousands of soldiers and generals. Facing the battle of Berlin, Hiter withdrew to his bunker to live out his final days. Adolf Hitler and his wife committed suicide by swallowing a cyanide capsule and shooting themselves in the head. Their bodies were hurriedly cremated. -
Battle in Berlin
The Battle in Berlin is regarded as the end of WWII. The Soviet Army made its way into Germany and was eager to make it to Berlin before the Americans. By April, the Soviets had started to encircle Berlin and finally entered the city. They faced heavy resistance from the German opposition, but the distance was ultimately subdued. Both sides suffered heavy casualties. The battle brought the end to German superiority and the end of the reign of Hitler. -
VE day
VE day is celebrated as the end of WWII. German troops laid down their arms and surrendered. In Great Britain and the United States, people put flags and banners to celebrate the defeat of the Nazis. The Soviet forces kept fighting and thousand of Germans tried to escape to the West to evade capture by the Russian army. Thousands of POWs were released and sent back to Great Britain. There were two surrender signings, one in France and the other at Stalin's request. -
Potsdam Conference
The Potsdam Conference was a meeting by the Big Three, the US, Great Britain, and the USSR, to discuss the terms for the end of WWII. The conference's main goal was to discuss what would happen to Germany. The Allies decided to demilitarize and disarm Germany under four zones of Allied occupation. German industry was going to be restructured and German society was to be remade along democratic lines. Borders and disputed territories were also settled by the conference -
Atomic Bomb on Nagasaki and Hiroshima
The US dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6th and 9th. This was the first and only time that an atomic bomb was used against humans; it killed thousands of people, obliterated cities, and brought an end to the fight between Japan and the US. Days later, Japan announced its surrender, and a formal surrender agreement was signed on September 2nd. The exposure to radiation affected the people around the cities generations after the bomb was dropped. -
Nuremburg Trials
The Nuremberg Trials were a series of trials bringing Nazi war criminals to justice. Those charged included Nazi Party officials, high-ranking military officers, German industrialists, lawyers, and doctors, were indicted on such charges as crimes against peace and crimes against humanity. The London Charter of the International Military Tribunal (IMT) established the rules and procedures. The best-known of the Nuremberg trials was the Trial of Major War Criminals where 24 people were indicted. -
Berlin Blockade and Airlift
The Berlin Blockade was an attempt by the Soviet Union to limit the ability of the United States, Great Britain, and France to travel to their sectors of Berlin, which lay within Russian-occupied East Germany. The Soviets cut off all rail, roads, and canal access to West Germany, which caused millions of civilians to be without food, water, or electricity. The Western powers implemented an airlift that delivered supplies to West Berlin. -
NATO is established
NATO, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, was created by the US, Canada, and several Western European nations to provide security against the Soviet Union. It was the first peacetime military alliance the United States entered outside of the Western Hemisphere. The Vandenburg Resolution suggested that a security treaty be signed outside of the United Nations, but would still follow the UN charter. The main goal was to secure peace in Europe and promote cooperation between its members. -
Warsaw Pact
The Warsaw Pact was a treaty that provided unified military command and for the maintenance of Soviet military units on the territories of the other participating states. It included the Soviet Union, Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Romania. This pact was a response to West Germany being admitted into NATO, but ultimately it strengthened the Soviet hold over its satellite states. The Warsaw Pact was formally declared “nonexistent” on July 1, 1991. -
Berlin Wall is Built
The migration of skilled workers was devastating to the West German economy because they lost intellectuals and professionals. East Germany decided to close off the barrier between East and West Berlin. East Berlin citizens were forbidden to pass into West Berlin. The initial barbed wire was eventually replaced with concrete and traps were placed to prevent anyone from crossing. The Berlin Wall was regarded as a major symbol of communist oppression. On November 9, the border was opened. -
SALT talks
The SALT talks (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks) were negotiations between the United States and the Soviet Union aimed at curtailing the manufacture of strategic missiles capable of carrying nuclear weapons. During the Cold War, the US and Russia were involved in an arms race, which resulted in a large stockpile of atomic weapons. President Nixon and Leonid Brezhnev, general secretary of the Soviet Communist Party for the U.S.S.R., signed the two most important treaties, the ABB and ABM treaty.