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French colonies (Francophone Africa) oppose continued French rule
Despite concessions, though many are eager to maintain economic and cultural ties to France--except in Algeria, with a white settler population of 1 million. A vicious civil war in Algeria ensues until independence is gained in 1962, six years after Morocco and Tunisia had received independence. These colonies were then able to start the process of turning into nations and eventually states. -
Ghana becomes first independent Black state
This happened under Kwame Nkrumah who through Gandhi-inspired rallies, boycotts, and strikes, forced the British to transfer power over the former colony of the Gold Coast. This was a fight against colonialism for self determination. -
White [Dutch-descent] Afrikaners officially gain independence from Great Britain in South Africa.
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Sierra Leone's William Conton publishes African, accentuating cultural differences experienced by a young African educated in England.
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Zaire becomes independent from Belgium
Formerly known as the Belgian Congo and the richest European colony in Africa. A piece of a shatterbelt that was starting to grow across Africa as more and more semi-autonomous regions fought for their independence from Europe and fought each other to expand their own cultures and territories. -
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Negritude movement wanes
After most African colonies achieve independence, and a new generation of African writers and intellectuals criticized Negritude concepts reinforcing racial stereotypes and largely irrelevant to the new problems post-colonial Africa faced. Negritude poets "defended the humanity of those whose humanity had been denied on the basis of race, a step that was unquestionably necessary," but in so they idealized the precolonial past and affirmed racial essence they claimed was "natural" to Africans. -
Algeria wins independence from France
This lead to over 900,000 white settlers leave the newly independent nation. Again, this is leading to shatterbelts across Africa and the creation of autonomous nations. -
Kenya declares independence from British.
Located in a multi-ethnic region that could be compared to multinational states living under a sovereignty (usually the British or French). -
mid-1960s
Former European colonies gain independence and the colonial era effectively ends. Neocolonialism, plagues many new African nations. Western economic and cultural dominance, and African leaders’ and parties’ corruption intensify the multiple problems facing the new nations. Indigenous ethnic groups feel stronger loyalty to traditional cultural ties and geographical homelands than to the arbitrary political boundary lines, first drawn by European colonizers, of independent African states. -
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Police state of South African white minority rulers hardens to maintain blatantly racist and inequitable system of apartheid, resulting violence, hostilities, strikes, massacres headlined worldwide.
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Apartheid is abolished, and South Africa begins preparing for multiracial elections.
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Mandela and de Klerk are awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their leadership towards a democratic South Africa.
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In South Africa’s first multiracial elections in April, Nelson Mandela is elected President, instituting black majority rule.
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The Rwandan Massacre
The Hutus massacre up to a million Tutsis in Rwanda; then fearing reprisals from the new Tutsi government, more than a million Hutu refugees fled Rwanda in a panicked mass migration that captured the world's attention. -
Hutu refugees return
500,000 Hutu refugees streamed back into Rwanda to escape fighting in Zaire, "yet another episode in the increasingly long history of tension and warfare between the Hutus and the Tutsis -- and of the West's equivocation about whether to intervene. -
Second election
South Africa's second democratic elections were free of violence and disorder. The African Nation Congress wins another commanding victory, some attributing this fact to Nelson Mandela's efforts to foster racial reconciliation and peaceful transition. Mandela's hand-picked successor Thabo Mbeki assumes the national presidency in the face of formidable challenges posed by the 21st century. -
The Organization for African Unity is replaced by the African Union
Remodeled after 38 years of existence. The African Union is loosely modeled after the European Union. The Pan-African Movement says that the creation of the African Union brings the dream of a common African currency, foreign policy, defense structure and economic program closer to reality.