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Galileo’s Sidereus Nuncius
Galileo’s Sidereus Nuncius (The Sidereal Messenger) is published. In the book Galileo describes his discoveries of four moons revolving around the planet Jupiter. -
Basic Laws
Isaac Newton publishes his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy). In the landmark work he sets forth his three basic laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation. -
John Locke
John Locke completes a major work in political philosophy, Two Treatises of Government. In this work he defends a doctrine of natural rights and a conception of political authority as limited and conditional on the ruler’s fulfillment of his obligation to serve the public good. A classic formulation of the principles of political liberalism, this work will later influence the American and French revolutions. -
John Toland
The Deistic philosopher John Toland publishes Christianity Not Mysterious. In this work he seeks to show that “there is nothing in the Gospels contrary to reason, nor above it.” Any doctrine that is really above reason, he argues, would be meaningless to humans. -
Montesquieu
Montesquieu publishes his first book, Lettres persanes (Persian Letters). The book gives a brilliant satirical portrait of French and, particularly, Parisian civilization, supposedly seen through the eyes of two Persian travelers. -
his first marrige
Napoleon marries Joséphine Tascher de La Pagerie, the widow of General Alexandre de Beauharnais, in March 1796. He subsequently leads French forces to a series of victories against the Austrians in northern Italy. He negotiates the Treaty of Campo Formio in 1797. He attempts to conquer Egypt (1798–99) but is defeated by the British under Horatio Nelson in the Battle of the Nile. Unrest at home leads Napoleon to return to France. -
Peace
Peace signed between Britain and France -
French Military
After completing his education in France, Napoleon joins the French military, becoming an artillery officer. -
Charles-Alexandre de Calonne
Charles-Alexandre de Calonne, France’s controller general of finances, assembles nobles and representatives of the bourgeoisie to discuss the country’s budget deficit. Calonne suggests taxing the privileged classes, but the assembly refuses to take responsibility for that reform. Instead, the assembly suggests convening the Estates-General, which has not met since 1614. -
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French revolution
The French Revolution begins, and Napoleon sides with the revolutionaries. He fights in the French Revolutionary Wars and in 1793 is promoted to brigadier general. In 1795 a new constitution in France places executive power in a five-member Directory. Napoleon becomes a respected adviser on military matters to the Directory. -
budget deficit
Charles-Alexandre de Calonne, France’s controller general of finances, assembles nobles and representatives of the bourgeoisie to discuss the country’s budget deficit. Calonne suggests taxing the privileged classes, but the assembly refuses to take responsibility for that reform. Instead, the assembly suggests convening the Estates-General, which has not met since 1614. -
War
France declares war on Austria. For the next seven years, the hostilities known as the French Revolutionary wars continue between France and various European powers. -
Estate's
The Estates-General, composed of representatives from the First Estate (clergy), Second Estate (nobility), and Third Estate (the lower classes), meet at Versailles. They are immediately divided over the issue of whether to count by head or to give each estate equal votes. -
Estate General
The dispute over votes in the Estates-General leads deputies of the Third Estate to declare themselves the National Assembly. Along with some members of the clergy, they threaten to proceed without the other two estates. -
National Assembly
The dispute over votes in the Estates-General leads deputies of the Third Estate to declare themselves the National Assembly. Along with some members of the clergy, they threaten to proceed without the other two estates. -
Tennis court
Royal officials lock the National Assembly out of their regular meeting hall; members of the assembly occupy the king’s indoor tennis court. They take what comes to be known as the Tennis Court Oath, promising not to disperse until they give France a new constitution. -
Tennis court
Royal officials lock the National Assembly out of their regular meeting hall; members of the assembly occupy the king’s indoor tennis court. They take what comes to be known as the Tennis Court Oath, promising not to disperse until they give France a new constitution. -
King Louis
King Louis XVI relents and urges the other two estates to join the assembly, which takes the official title of National Constituent Assembly. The king, however, begins to gather troops with the intention of dispersing the body. -
Great Fear
Amid the Great Fear of July 1789, when Parisians were panicked about the possibility of the aristocracy overthrowing the Third Estate, a large crowd seizes the Bastille prison, which is a symbol of royal tyranny. -
His birth
Napoleon is born Napoleone Buonaparte in Ajaccio, on the Mediterranean island of Corsica, which lies to the west of Italy. The island comes under French rule this same year. Napoleon later adopts the French spelling of his name, Napoléon Bonaparte. -
National Constituent
The National Constituent Assembly introduces the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, a document that shares Enlightenment influences with the Declaration of Independence. The king refuses to sanction it, resulting in Parisians marching to Versailles and forcing the royal family back to Paris. -
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National Constituent
The National Constituent Assembly introduces the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, a document that shares Enlightenment influences with the Declaration of Independence. The king refuses to sanction it, resulting in Parisians marching to Versailles and forcing the royal family back to Paris. -
War
France declares war on Austria. For the next seven years, the hostilities known as the French Revolutionary wars continue between France and various European powers. -
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New Assembly
A new assembly, the National Convention, meets, abolishes the monarchy, and establishes a republic. -
Treason
Louis XVI, judged by the convention, is executed for treason. -
Reign of Terror
During the Reign of Terror, a period during which radical elements of the government enact harsh measures against those they consider enemies, Marie-Antoinette is executed by guillotine. The Reign of Terror is overseen by Maximilien Robespierre. -
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Overthrown
Robespierre is overthrown in the National Convention. He is executed the next day, signaling the end of the Reign of Terror. Soon after, the National Convention is dissolved, making way for a government consisting of a five-person Directory and a bicameral legislature. -
coup
Coup d’Etat in Paris -
New military leader
Military leader Napoleon Bonaparte overthrows the Directory and declares himself first consul, or leader, of France. He is later named emperor. -
Victory!!
A victory over Austria at the Battle of Marengo leaves France the dominant power on the continent.