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Vietnam part of French Indo-China
Included Vietnam, Laos & Cambodia. French rule unpopular. -
Japan invaded Indo-China
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Vietminh set up
League for the Independence of Vietnam set up by Ho Chi Minh & Nguyen Vo Giap (leading Vietnamese communists). Aimed to establish independent Vietnam. US Intelligence Service trained/equipped Vietminh. By 1945, had 5,000 guerrilla fighters. -
Japan defeated in WW2
In August 1945, Japanese defeated in WW2. Force to evacuate all conquests, inc. Vietnam. -
Hanoi & Saigon occupied by Ho Chi Minh
In September 1945, Ho Chi Minh quickly occupied Hanoi (north) & Saigon (south). Announced Vietnam independent & democratic republic. USA didn't want to see restoration of colonial empires so sympathised with Ho Chi Minh. -
French moved back into Indo-China
Independent republic short-lived. Within weeks, French moved 50,000 troops into Indo-China. Restored control over South Vietnam where Vietminh not strong. Drove HCM into jungles of North. For next 5 years, HCM conducted guerrilla campaign against French. -
Chinese Communist Party won civil war
In 1949, Chinese Communist Party led by Mao Zedong won their civil war & established communist government. Mao supported Vietminh with military supplies. -
USA supported French
In 1950, Truman (as a result of Truman Doctrine in 1947) agreed to send French $15million of supplies. Over next 4 years, USA spent nearly $3billion helping French. -
Domino theory
Eisenhower believed in 'domino theory'. If S. Vietnam became communist could be followed by Laos, Cambodia, etc. Determined to prevent spread of communism to S. Vietnam. Feared joint elections would lead to election of HCM (popularity grown in South since Dien Bien Phu). HCM wanted united, communist Vietnam & supported by Chinese. -
Dien Bien Phu
Decisive battle for control of Vietnam at French garrison of Dien Bien Phu in 1954. French aimed to cut off Vietminh soldiers along supply line to Laos. Vietminh surrounded camp & set up gun positions on nearby hills, preventing French supplies. China gave 20,000 bikes to move supplies. Villagers helped dig 5 new roads. After 2 months, French surrendered in May. Armistice signed 2 months later & French agreed to leave Indo-China. 3,000 survived out of 16,500 French troops (many were German). -
Geneva Agreement
In May 1954, Britain, France, China, USSR, USA & Vietnam met in Geneva. Vietnam would be divided temporarily along 17th parallel into North (led by HCM) & South (led by Ngo Dinh Diem). Vietminh forces pull out of South & French out of North. Early elections in July 1956 to elect government for Vietnam & reunite. -
Weaknesses of Diem government
Diem not popular as Catholic, whereas most were Buddhists. Roman Catholic landowners in gov. Persecuted Buddhists, e.g. banned flying of Buddhist flag on Buddha's birthday. In June 1963, Quang Duc (73-year-old Buddhist monk) set himself alight in protest. Madame Nhu (Diem's sister-in-law) hoped for more such 'barbecues'. Ruled as dictator. Executed supporters of Vietminh who didn't change. Gave peasant's land to his supporters who charged high taxes. HCM carried out land reform & was popular. -
Ngo Dinh Diem elected
Eisenhower determined to maintain S. Vietnam gov. Meant propping up president Diem. Had served in French administration in 1930s & emerged as leader of South in 1954. In October 1955, officially elected president of South. Elections rigged, e.g. 605,000 in Saigon voted for Diem, despite population of 450,000. USA knew this. Diem, supported by US, refused to allow reunification election in South. USA sent aid/military advisers to train S. Vietnamese army. -
Vietminh terror campaign
In 1959, N. Vietnamese gov. ordered Vietminh terror campaign against South officials. Average 4,000 officials killed a year. -
National Liberation Front set up
In 1960, former members of Vietminh in South, supported by HCM, set up National Liberation Front to oppose Diem's regime. Consisted of 12 nationalist groups, ranging from Buddhists to communists. Demanded removal of Diem & land reform. Began guerrilla campaign. To Diem & USA, all opposition was communist & labelled 'Vietcong' (term of abuse). -
President Kennedy
Determined to get tough on communism & prevent expansion in Asia. Decided to increase US involvement in Vietnam, to prop up corrupt Diem regime & defeat NLF/Vietcong. Increased military experts training S. Vietnamese army (Army of the Republic of Vietnam). 16,000 advisers sent during presidency, inc. Army Special Forces (Green Berets). Equipped further 20,000 troops for ARVN, increasing it to 170,000. In 1961, USA spent $270million in military support for Diem. -
Strategic Hamlet Program
ARVN outnumbered Vietcong, but unable to defeat them, despite US aid. Vietcong attacked ARVN & disappeared into jungle. Supported by sympathetic villages. In 1962, USA created strategic hamlets to provide more security in countryside. Moved peasants into fortified villages, guarded by troops. 3,000 set up. Hoped to reduce influence of NLF & increase loyalty by providing protection/economic aid. Resentment as moved from family burial sites. Communist supporters moved to new area & spread ideas. -
Vietcong growth
Guerrilla attacks in South increased from 50 to 150 between Sept.-Oct. 1961. By 1963, support for Vietcong increased to 23,000. Within 1.5yrs, 170,000 fighters. Partly due to Chinese support. Won first military victory against South at Ap Bac in January 1963. -
President Johnson
Inherited limited but growing US commitment to war not going well for US. By 1964, 60,000 guerrillas in South. Supplied by HCM trail running from North to South through Laos/Cambodia (lasted 2 months). 35% S. Vietnam in Vietcong hands. Preferred to expand US advisory role, rather than combat troops. Became apparent that more direct involvement needed. Had to convince Congress & US public. -
Secret peace talks
1969-73. No progress for several months. In Aug. 1969, Nixon sent Kissinger to begin secret negotiations with North (represented by Le Duc Tho). US public & South not told. No progress & both sides continued military action to improve negotiating position. North followed US peace movement & believed public would force US out. For nearly 4 years, peace talks had no major breakthroughs. -
Diem overthrown
Kennedy realised Diem too unpopular. US gov. gave support to plot by leading generals to overthrow Diem. On 1st November 1963, troops supporting coup d'etat surrounded Diem's palace in Saigon. He appealed to US Ambassador for help. Following day, arrested & shot. Following governments short-lived. Successor lasted 3 months. In 1964, coup d'etat. General Khanh lasted 1 year. -
Increased US involvement
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution led to more direct US involvement. Johnson increased air support & attacks. In 1964, 2 élite battalions of S. Vietnamese troops defeated by VC ambush tactics. US air bases attacked by NLF. In Feb. 1965, NLF guerrillas destroyed 10 helicopters, killed 8 serviceman & wounded 100+. In March 1965, 3,500 US combat troops arrived to protect air bases. Increased to 200,000 by end of year. By 1968, increased to 1/2 million. -
Gulf of Tonkin incident
On 2nd Aug. 1964, US destroyer Maddox, gathering intelligence information, fired at by N. Vietnamese patrol boats in Gulf of Tonkin. 2nd alleged attack on USS Turner Joy 2 days later (evidence later showed false). Johnson used attacks to persuade Congress to support greater US involvement. Congress believed North needed to be taught lesson. Passed Gulf of Tonkin Resolution which gave Johnson power to take any military measures necessary to defend S. Vietnam. -
US tactics
Air power- destroy supply lines, equipped own forces. Superiority in artillery/equipment. Killing large numbers of enemy- US commander (General Westmoreland) convinced 'high enemy body count' would bring victory. Chemical weapons- destroy food/hiding, 82 million litres Agent Orange (defoliant), Napalm (800°C), decreased support. Ground- troops patrolled 80km around bases, hoped more acceptable as fewer casualties. -
Vietcong tactics
Guerrilla- used by Mao Zedong, sabotage, sudden ambush, knowledge of jungle. Support- killed unpopular government officials/peasants who opposed/employees of South gov., VC courteous, helped peasants in busy periods, propaganda. Weaken/terrorise- US feared ambush/booby traps (11% deaths), punji sticks, ordinary dress/hard to identify, close to US troops so planes couldn't bomb, sabotaged bridges, tunnels (320km Saigon). Conventional- battles were surprise attack.1966-71, killed 27,000 civilians. -
Search & Destroy
Within few months after la Drang, Johnson gave permission to adopt more aggressive tactics. Didn't inform public. Westmoreland established secure/heavily defended US bases in South near coast. US/ARVN launched Search & Destroy tactics using helicopters. Descended on village suspected of assisting VC & destroyed it. Zippo raids (lighters set fire to thatching). Success- killed VC. Failure- inexperienced troops (traps), incorrect information (innocent), unpopular, civilian casualties. -
Operation Rolling Thunder
On 7th Feb. 1965, US launched Operation Rolling Thunder. Widespread bombing raids on military/industrial targets in North. Intention for 8 week offensive, lasted over 3.5 years. Dropped more bombs on Vietnam than dropped by Allies during WW2. Success- damaged North's war effort, disrupted supplies, damaged cities in North. Failure- few factories to bomb, mostly affected countryside, greater support for North, in 1967 Life calculated cost $400,000 to kill 1 VC (75 bombs & 400 artillery shells). -
Battle of la Drang
US determined to force NVA into pitched battle. In Nov. 1965, fought first battle against NVA in La Drang Valley. NVA lost 1,800. USA had 240 casualties. NVA retreated into neutral Cambodia, US couldn't follow. Body count seemed to favour US. Westmoreland convinced North couldn't survive such casualties (misjudged commitment). US public didn't accept loss of troops. -
Operation Phoenix
In 1968, CIA set up Operation Phoenix to identify/arrest 3,000 VC suspects a month. Arrested 28,000 in total. Tortured (e.g. by starvation, tapping wood through brain, Tucker Telephone). Some innocent. Public uncomfortable with such brutal methods. -
Peace negotiations
1968-69. Following Tet Offensive, Johnson suggested peace talks & surprisingly North accepted. Began in Paris with representatives from USA, North, South & VC. Johnson halted bombing of North. For months no progress. Argued over petty issues (e.g. shape/size of table, seating & flags on table). Major issue was inclusion of South Vietnamese communists as separate negotiating group. Thieu didn't want them as gave VC legal status. -
Tet Offensive
On 31st Jan. 1968, VC launched attack on 100+ cities in South. Public holiday (New Year) so 1/2 ARVN on leave. Aware war unpopular in USA. Hoped to inspire mass support. VC diverted US attention to battle at Khe Sanh. Rapid advances into cities in series of coordinated attacks. 15-man suicide squad fought way into US Embassy in Saigon & held out for 5hrs (live on US TV). In Saigon, 4,500 kept larger US/ARVN force occupied for 2 days. Held major city of Hué (North) for 25 days & executed 3,000. -
Results of Tet Offensive
Attacked 36 of 44 provincial capitals. Largest military operation. Failed. 45,000 VC casualties of 84,000. Destroyed finest fighters. Didn't inspire widespread rebellion in South. VC more closely controlled by Hanoi. USA/ARVN responded rapidly/forcefully. 1,000 US casualties. 3,000 ARVN casualties. Turning point. Johnson stopped bombing North in return for peace talks. Showed VC could strike at heart of US-held territory (shocked public). Suggested war was unwinnable (had claimed end in sight). -
My Lai Massacre
On 16th March 1968, US patrol carried out Search & Destroy mission on My Lai village during Tet Offensive. Lieutenant Calley wiped out village. 347 killed. Women raped. Military kept quiet & boasted of its success in killing 90 VC. In Nov. 1969, Life magazine published details from soldier who had heard of it. Led to official investigation. Public outcry at massacre/cover up. Evidence war going wrong. 1/2 million demonstrated in Washington. Some refused to believe or felt justified as helped VC. -
Vietnamisation
By 1969, 36,000 US military killed. In May 1969, Nixon unveiled plan to end US involvement in Vietnam. Policy of Vietnamisation. Enable USA to withdraw troops by getting South to take on more responsibility. Thieu's gov. still given financial/military aid & US air force support ground troops. First withdrawal of 25,000 in June 1969. 60,000 6 months later. Introduced to fulfil election promises to end war & due to increasing opposition. -
Vietnamisation
Failure- ARVN no match for VC, senior US military commanders believed ARVN could at best contain force of North, desertion (123,000 in 1969, 150,500 in 1971, 24,000 back after rice harvest), corruption in ARVN (high-ranking officers appointed for political reasons), US troops no longer saw fighting to win, Congress restricted funding, economic crisis (300,000 lost jobs in South), Hanoi gov. realised anti-war movement in US would force withdrawal. -
Madman theory
Nixon's advisers feared removal of US troops would result in NLF victory. Only way to avoid humiliating defeat was to negotiate a peace agreement in talks taking place in Paris. USA used madman theory in attempt to scare Hanoi & convince that Nixon so hated communism/so taken by domino theory that planning to use nuclear weapons if war continued. Didn't affect North representatives at Paris talks. -
Nixon Doctrine
On 25th July 1969, Nixon started plan to Vietnamise the Vietnam War. USA would honour current defence commitments but wouldn't commit troops anywhere else. -
Invasion of Cambodia
On 15th March 1969, Nixon ordered secret bombing of HCM Trail in Cambodia (neutral, let Trail operate & be attacked). Secret as expansion of war unpopular. In March 1970, pro-American General Lon Nol took over Cambodia & told North to leave. North joined forces with Cambodian communist guerrillas. Nixon agreed to Cambodia Campaign to save from communism. 50,000 ARVN & 30,000 US invaded. US allowed 19 miles across border & had to be out by 30th June 1970. -
Results of invasion of Cambodia
Success- 100,000 killed & 2million homeless, 11,000 communists killed, significant damage to HCM Trail, communist bases destroyed, Nol in power. Failure- North used trail in Laos to reach South, communists pulled back (ARVN couldn't follow as would be cut off from US support), US public outcry (protests), Congress cancelled Gulf of Tonkin Resolution on 24th June 1970 (called for less funding/faster withdrawal). Nixon called on silent majority (polls indicated majority agreed with his policy). -
Kent State University shootings
Protests after invasion of Cambodia in 1970. Students angered by Nixon speech on 1st May 1970 ("bums"). Refused to move from demonstration at Kent State Uni. on 4th May 1970. Ohio National Guardsmen fired at them. Used tear gas & guns loaded with live ammunition (protesters didn't know). 67 rounds in 13secs. 4 killed; 11 injured. Press horrified. 400 colleges closed; 2million students striked. National Guard called out in 16 states. Hate mail branding communists. 58% blamed demonstrators vs 11%. -
Hard Hat riot
Large numbers in building/construction unions support Nixon's policy. Nicknamed hard hats. Nixon claimed supporting freedom & patriotism. After Kent State Uni. shootings, anti-war protesters announced demonstration to commemorate 4 dead. Hard hats retaliated by setting up own rally to demonstrate support for Nixon's policies. On 8th May 1970, student protest in Manhattan. 200 construction workers attacked them with hard hats. Police did little. 70+ injured (inc. 4 policemen). 6 arrested. -
Invasion of Laos
In Feb. 1971, 5,000 élite ARVN & 21,000 US air support troops invaded Laos. Operation Lam Son 719. Sent to destroy HCM Trail. North couldn't afford to lose bases/trail so decided to fight battle for first time since Tet. Gathered 36,000 troops/tanks, equipped with Soviet weapons. ARVN took city of Tchepone with US support. Communists attacked & ARVN fled after bloody battle. Failure- ARVN had high casualties. Raised doubts about Vietnamisation, trail/North bases in Laos remained secure. -
Pentagon Papers
Pentagon Papers of 1971 were collection of gov. documents relating to Vietnam war. Leaked to media & published by New York Times. Showed conflicted gov. & deliberate lying to Congress. Increased opposition as public didn't trust gov. -
Easter Offensive
Operations in Cambodia/Laos ended with no decisive victory. USA continued to withdraw troops, despite ARVN failure. Peace negotiations (secret/public) continued, showing little sign of reaching agreement. North, encouraged by Laos, planned direct attack on ARVN. On 30th March 1972, 120,000 North troops crossed border into South & attacked in 3 places. Shortly before, USA said invasion not serious possibility. Attack was a surprise & successful at first. ARVN, with US air support, pushed back. -
Breakthrough in negotiations
1972-73. Peace movement changed when Nixon visited China in Feb. 1972. China & USSR supported North, but didn't trust each other. Nixon's trip helped to exploit divisions between China/USSR as well as China/Vietnam. US-Soviet relations improved after Moscow summit in May 1972 (first president to visit Moscow). Brezhnev acted as intermediary between Hanoi & Washington. Brezhnev used role in Vietnam to enhance détente & show USSR had more influential position than China. -
October agreement
Agreement reached in Oct. 1972. Nixon pleased as came just before elections. Terms- North dropped demand that Thieu be replaced by coalition, NVA allowed to remain in areas controlled, VC allowed to participate in final settlement, ceasefire agreed, US to withdraw remaining troops, US prisoners of war to be repatriated. Thieu rejected as knew US would abandon. Talks halted in Dec. 1972. Some suggested having Thieu assassinated. Nixon knew Congress wouldn't grant funds in 1973. -
Bombing of North Vietnam
Increased air raids after 1971 & B-52 bombers attacked North for first time since 1967. In Oct. 1972, Henry Kissinger (US Secretary of State) announced 'peace was at hand'. Thieu refused to accept terms. Nixon escalated bombing. Operation Linebacker II began on 18th Dec 1972 & continued for 12 days (except 25th). Attempt at winning concessions at peace talks. Biggest aerial attack of war. In Hanoi bombing relentless. Mines/blockades in Haiphong harbour to prevent Chinese/Soviet ships entering. -
Results of Operation Linebacker II
1,600 civilians died. 70 US airmen captured/killed. New York Times called bombing 'Diplomacy through terror'. Almost wiped out North war industry. Severely disrupted supplies from USSR/China. Destroyed communication networks (e.g. radio stations). Led to China (Mao Zedong) & USSR (Brezhnev) urging North to reach peace settlement. Nixon visited China/USSR during 1972. -
Ceasefire collapsed
Seen as brief whilst US withdrew. Collapsed in March 1973. North attacked in Dec. 1974. Thieu asked USA for $300million. Angered when denied (Congress cut aid below Nixon's promise). Thieu said North received massive amounts from China/USSR & didn't want to be left. North won key victory on 11th March 1975 & dislodged South troops from Ban Me Thuot (anchor of Saigon defences). Drove towards Saigon virtually unopposed. Defend "to last bullet, to last grain of rice". Surrender 1 month later. -
Paris Peace Agreement
Bombing campaign of North forced them to agree peace terms. On 23rd Jan. 1973, ceasefire signed in Paris, essentially mirrored 1972 Oct. agreements. Thieu had no choice. Presented presented as best solution available. Assured Thieu USA would continue aid & would help if agreement violated. Thieu felt sudden withdrawal would cripple military strength & leave vulnerable (North permitted to remain in areas controlled in South). Signed on 27th Jan. 1973. Complete US withdrawal by 29th March 1973. -
Economic cost for USA
In 1964, cost to taxpayer under $1/2 billion. Increased to $26.5 billion within 4 years. Taxpayer resentment. Main contributor to gov. $26 billion deficit & rising inflation. Money couldn't be spent on solving problems in USA. Johnson had made plans to improve lives of poor Americans (Great Society) but lost funding. US Treasury warned war couldn't go on. -
Damage to political view of USA
Lost war to less industrialised/wealthy country. Fought in ways that made them ashamed. Bitterness about draft-dodgers (avoided service). Not one member of Congress lost a son. Contributed to growing lack of trust between public & gov./military/police. Many politicians felt USA should be more careful not to get involved in conflict in other countries. US gov. felt had lost reputation abroad (failed to keep South free from communism). -
Reasons for failure - cultural/geographical weaknesses
Failed to win over South peasants (viewed US as invaders & supported VC). US-backed South gov. unpopular & corrupt. Used interpreters so harder to gain trust of South. Had little grasp of what country was like, inc. top military officials. Foreigners & imposed own ideas. Some racist attitudes. Most didn't realise villagers couldn't read so pointless dropping leaflets warning due to be bombed. Didn't understand villagers wouldn't want to leave land. Tactics failed to destroy morale of North. -
Reasons for failure - political weaknesses
Growing opposition weakened morale of troops & made almost impossible for gov. to continue war. Opposition to cost of war. By 1971, Congress setting limits on money so military ran out of equipment. -
Opposition pt.1
Gov. tried to make public believe opposition mainly from students (dropped out of society) in attempt to discredit them. Opposition from politicians (corrupt regime), returning troops, blacks (civil rights more important, suffered economic cutbacks, more blacks conscripted), women. Influenced by general protest movement. Political- Congress told if war lasted until 1967 would cost $10billion (real estimate was $20billion), questioned reasoning as USA seemed to prop up military dictatorship. -
Opposition pt.3
Methods of warfare- chemical warfare angered environmentalists, public saw bombing as brutal/unnecessary, appalled by suffering from Search & Destroy. Draft system- from 1969 determined by DOB, exemptions seemed to favour wealthy middle-class, higher proportion of black/working-class, Draft Resistance Movement advised how to avoid conscription, draft cards burnt, raided draft board offices to burn records, 34,000 draft-dodgers wanted by police by 1969, 1/4 million avoided conscription. -
Support
Fear of communism- increased after WW2 (Soviet expansion into Eastern Europe, victory of Chinese communists & Korean War), Red Scare of late 1940s/early 1950s (Republican senator Joe McCarthy insisted communist spies everywhere, esp. State Department of gov.), domino theory. Silent majority- moderate people too passive to make views known, Nixon used term in Nov. 1969 speech (believed opponents dominated media, giving little publicity to many supporters). -
Human cost for USA
50,000 died & 300,000 wounded out of 2.8million (2million from conscription). 1 in 10 was casualty. 100,000 returned without limbs. 30% heroin use (hard drugs cheap in Laos/Cambodia). Some treated returning soldiers as criminals/child murderers. Medical treatment in USA was poor. Difficult to find jobs/get old job back (despite law to keep jobs open). More US veterans committed suicide after war than killed in war. Felt betrayed by country embarrassed by them. -
Reasons for failure - strength of North/Vietcong
In early 1965, VC had 170,000 soldiers. North gov. used conscription & public opposition not option. Hanoi sent 100,000 to South each year. Fought for communism/reunification. Prepared to accept high body count (500,000-900,000 died). Knew terrain & skilled guerrillas. Supported by South peasants alienated by Diem/US tactics. Supplied by USSR/China ($2billion 1965-68). USSR gave 8,000 anti-aircraft guns. VC established in South. HCM Trail & tunnel system. Had contacts in South. -
Reasons for failure - military weaknesses
No experience of guerrilla warfare. After 1967, most not full combat troops but drafted in to serve 1 year. 19 average age. 43% of dead killed within first 3 months tour of duty. Hostility between officers & men. 1970-71, 700 cases of fragging. 1971, 5,000 treated for combat wounds & 20,000 for drug abuse. 1966-73, 503,000 cases of desertion. Public not prepared to accept high body count. Few believed defending democracy, main aim to reach DEROS. Focused on body counts to measure success. -
Reasons for failure - US opposition
Great impact- weakened war effort, divided public opinion, brought end to involvement, Johnson didn't seek re-election in 1968, Nixon won as promised to end war ("peace with honour"), introduced Vietnamisation in 1969 to reduce opposition. Limited- labelled as communists/traitors, exaggerated, 85% supported gov. policy in war in 1964, after 1970 Cambodia invasion 50% approved; 30% opposed (Gallup poll), 10% higher education institutions had serious anti-war disturbances & 10% students took part. -
Opposition pt.2
US casualties- under 2,000 in 1965, risen to 14,000 by 1968, public felt death toll not justified, ex-soldiers formed Vietnam Veterans Against the War in 1967 stating war not worth casualties. Media coverage- first war televised in detail, colour television readily accessible by late 1960s, worsened bloody nature, conflict/protests in living rooms of most families, revealed brutality/injuries, seemed to show USA had little hope/chance of winning. -
Vietnam re-united
Thieu's resignation demanded by all sides (inc. former allies in USA) in order to make way for peace talks (hadn't wanted to negotiate). Reluctantly stepped down on 21st April 1975 & left country. Talks never came. South overrun shortly after departure. Saigon captured by North on 30th April 1975. Gov. of North reunited Vietnam on 2nd July 1975 to form Socialist Republic of Vietnam.