-
Period: to
Republican - Dwight D. Eisenhower
Ordered the complete desegregation of the Armed Forces -
Public school integration
Also known as the Brown II case.
This was to specifically address the issue of remedying racial segregation in educational facilities. -
Montgomery (Alabama) Bus Boycott
Rosa Parks, an African-American, refused to give up her seat to a white man.
She was arrested and fined.
Led to a 13 month mass protest/boycott; black Americans refused to use the bus, leading to the bus companies having to desegregate their buses or face many financial difficulties. (at least 75% of Montgomery's bus riders were African-Americans)
This is when Martin Luther King organises non-violent protests against segregation. -
Southern states against desegregation
Congressmen are against the desegregation in schools, so they call for a massive resistance: the Southern Manifesto. -
Martin Luther King
Nearly 25,000 people gathered at thw Lincon Memorial in Washington, for a Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom featuring songs and speeches.
This was to urge to government to fulfill the Brown v. Board of Education decision.
Martin Luther King was the leader of the Southern Christian Leadership conference (SCLC).
Throughout the year, there were more demonstrations and speeches with Martin Luther King. -
Little Rock challenged school desegregation
The National guard got troops to ban 9 black students from attending the previously all-white school in Little Rock, Arkansas.
He withdrew the troops on 21 September and the students were allowed to attend 2 days later.
There was the threat of voilence, so President Eisenhower sent troops to protect the students. -
Failed satellite
The first attempt by the USA to launch a satellite into space fails - it explodes on the launchpad! -
College sit-in & SNCC
Four black college students from North Carolina staged a sit-in, protesting their denial of service.
This caused a national campaign, leading to 70,000 students (both black and white), over the next 8 months, to hold their own sit-ins for Civil Rights.
This lead to the establishment of the SNCC: Student Non-violent Co-ordinating Committee. -
U2 spy plane shot down
AN American U2 was shot down over Russia, and the pilot was captured.
America, at first, denied that it was a spy plane. However, they were later forced to tell the truth.
The Russian leader demanded an apology from America; President Eisenhower refused.
This intensified the tension during the Cold War. -
Total of 50 million TV sets in the USA
-
New Frontier program
The "New Frontier" program was Kennedy's plan, designed to combat rising unemployment, poverty and inflation by increasing government spending. He would do this by cooperating with big businesses to keep wages high and costs low.
Initially successful, but the huge steel industry announced an increase in costs which would affect the whole American economy. JFK began cancelling the government with those companies which stopped an economic crisis. -
Period: to
Democratic - John F. Kennedy
Forced the Soviet Union to remove missiles from Cuba (Cuban Missile Crisis)
4th President to be assassinated -
Freedom rides
A group of African-American and white civil rights activists launched the Freedom Rides: a series of bus trips through South America to protest segregation at bus stops.
The African-American members used "whites only" facilities and vise versa.
They faced much violence from the whites in the South, but they also managed to gain international attention.
This lead to the prohibitation of segregation in buses and trains, September 1961. -
Fair Labor Standards Act
Initially set up in 1938, it established the forty-hour working week, minimum wage, overtime pay and prohibited child labour.
1961 introduced another coverage: enterprise coverage.
This meant that wealthier businesses had to follow these rules, as well as schools, hospitals and other residential care facilities. -
Albany Movement
SNCC mobilised Frican-American students to protest about the segregation there. It did not recieve support from other civil rights leaders, as they saw the SNCC as trouble makers.
Albany's bus centre was targetted because, unlike Alabama's, it still faced segregation. The authorities refused to desegregate the bus station.
Someone invited Martin Luther King. The SNCC were not happy as they wanted the campaign to be led by locals.
Many were arrested and then set free straight after. -
James Meredith attended University
James Meredith, a black American, was admitted into Mississippi university.
This led to race riots where two were killed and many more injured.
JFK sent troops armed with teargas to take on the rioters who were armed with rocks, petrol bombs and some even had guns!
Cars and television trucks were smashed and burned...the violence was almost out of control. -
Cuban Missile crisis begins
President JFK orders a naval and air blockade of military euipment going to Cuba. This is because the Soviet Union were building offensive weapons in Cuba.
It came close to an armed Cold War, but the Russian leader eventually agreed to stop building. -
Birmingham Campaign
It was organised by the SCLC, led by Martin Luther King.
It was a campaign of nonviolent direct action, as Birmingham was one of the most racially divided cities.
It involved boycotting, which meant that businesses had to eliminate segregation or go out of business.
Through the media, it drew the world's attention to racial segregation and contributed to the Civil Rights Act of 1964. -
Equal Pay Act
Was signed by Kennedy as part of his New Frontier program.
This law prohibited employers from discriminating based on gender, thus abolishing the "gender gap." -
March on Washington/ "I Have a Dream"
It tried to reach out to people about the Political and Social Injustices African-Americans still faced.
JFK was also considering passing a Civil Rights Act, so this March was to try and advocate the Act.
It included musical performances and speeches, including MLK's "I Have a Dream" speech.
A lot of the speech wasn't planned - a person in the crowd spoke out to King, so he changed his prepared speech. -
Assassination of JFK
Lee Harvey Oswald allegedly fired three shots from the Texas School Book Depository.
Oswald had earlier tried unsuccessfully to become a Soviet Citizen and shot a US army General who was known for his extreme right-wing views.
Jack Ruby shot Oswald the next day, claiming that his motivation was for JFK. -
Period: to
Democratic - Lyndon B. Johnson
Signed the Civil Rights Act outlawing discrimination.
Escalated the war in Vietnam by sending more troops.
The "Great Society" initiated reforms in education, medical care, housing and voting rights. -
War in Vietnam escalates
Organisations in South Vietnam are still trying to achieve communism
There are secret bombing raids by US fighter planes.
America put more funding into the South Vietnam army.
North Vietnamese patrol boats attack the American destroyer and President Johnson warns North Vietnam.
Later, Johnson retaliates and bombs North Korea without warning and 85% of Americans agree with his decision.
This is followed by more conflict between US Army and the Vietnamese. -
Freedom Summer
A project designed to draw the nations attention to the violent oppression experienced by Mississippi blacks who expressed their rights, and develop freedom for students once they left Mississippi.
Volunteers - mainly middle-class whites - began summer training to register black voters, teach them literacy and promote the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP)
Many civil rights workers disappeared...
The summer project also established 4 Freedom schools, where blacks could learn. -
Civil Rights Act
Outlawed discrimination based on race, colour, religion, sex or national origin.
Abolished discrimination in voting, racial segregation in schools and the workplace,and public places.
This strengthened the Equal Pay Act, 1963.
Although weak at first, Congress asserted its authority and made it stronger later in the year. -
Economic Opportunity Act
It was part of the War on Poverty which contributed to the "Great Society" plan.
It provided for job training, adult education and loans to small businesses in Local Community Action Agencies. -
Urban Mass transport Act
Provided $375 million dollars to large-scale urban public or private rail projects.
It provided capital grants for some of the cost of transit improvements, and encourage US government funds to be spent on American products.
It was also part of the "Great Society" -
Assassination of Malcom X
An activist and public voice of Black Muslim faith.
He urged followers to defend themselves against white aggression.
Changed his last name to "X" to signify his rejection of his slave name.
His father was killed when he was younger, his mother had a nervous breakdown, so he was in care. He then lead a life of crime.
After prison, he became a civil rights activist believing in communism.
He was assassinated by a black Muslim at a rally. -
Selma to Montgomery march
Activists marched the 54 mile walk, showing the desire of African-American citizens to exercise their constitutional rights to vote.
Despite laws being passed, many white officals in the south still held their traditional views.
Once they passed the border, many state troopers attacked the unarmed marchers - this was Bloody Sunday.
The protesters demanded protection and new voting rights law. President Lyndon Johnson went on TV to ask for the bill's passage, and protected marchers. -
Social Security Amendments
Provided federal health insurance for the elderly (With Medicare) and for poor families (with Medicaid). -
Voting Rights Act
Prohibited racial discrimination in voting. -
Watts riots
A black motorist was arrested for drunk driving, and a roadside argument turned into a riot.
This resulted in six days of looting and arson, mainly of white businesses.
It is said that police discrimination and brutality was the cause. -
Housing and Urban Development Act
It expanded funding for existing federal housing programs, and added new programs to provide rent and subsidies for the elderly and disabled.
It also established housing rehabilitation grants to poor homeowners; veterans to make low down-payments for mortgases; grants for the construction of water and sewer facilities; community centers in low-income aread and urban beautification. -
National Organisation for Women (NOW)
A feminist party who had the purpose of bringing women into the mainstream of society so they have the same privileges and responsibilites of men.
Issues that they addressed: abortion, violence against women, lesbian rights, economic justice, constitutional euality and promoting diversity/anti-racism.
Although sexism was illegal, the government were not actively involved with enforcing true equality. -
Black Panther Party formed
A black nationalist and socialist party (far-left).
They had armed citizens' patrols to monitor the behavoir of police officers and challenge police brutality.
Instituted the Free Breakfast for Children.
There was government oppression as they used tactics to undermine the leadership and criminalise the party.
They reached a peak, 1970, with offices in 68 cities and thousands of members.
They dissolved when reports of illegal activities surfaced. -
Meredith's 'March Against Fear"
James Meredith (the first black Mississippi University student) began his solo 220 mile march.
He was heading for Jackson to show how to stand up to white authority and encourage blacks to vote.
A white man shot him, 30 miles in, and Meredith was taking to hospital. Reporters and FBI agents witnessed this. -
San Francisco 'Summer of Love'
Free food, free drugs, free love, a free store, and a free clinic was established for medical treatment.
It attracted as many as 100,000 young people from around the world.
The hippies were suspicious of the government, and generally opposed the Vietnam War. Others focused on art or religion and meditation. They were all eager to integrate new ideas and insights into daily life.
Before most people left in the Autumn to return to studies, the neighbourhood scene deteriorated. -
First Black Justice of the Supreme Court
Thurgood Marshall was a great-grandson of a slave, and was rejected from the University of Maryland Law School because of his race, later went to an all-black university.
Marshall was appointed to the Court of Appeals in 1961 by Kennedy, despite the decision being opposed by Southern senators.
President Johnson nominated Marshall to fill the seat of the Supreme Court: the nations highest court.
He consistently challenged discrimination based on race or sex and opposed the death penalty, -
Tet offensive
North Vietnamese communist forces launched a series of fierce attacks on more than 100 towns in South Vietnam.
This attack was to encourage the USA to scale back its support, but news coverage eroded more support for the war effort.
North Vietnam achieved a victory and thus the beginning of the painful American withdrawal from South Vietnam.
President Johnson declared that he was calling for negotiations to end the war, and announced that he would not be running for re-election. -
Martin Luther King assassinated
Assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee, whilst standing on a motel balcony. -
Civil Rights Act
Provided equal housing opportunities regardless of race or national origin, e.g. rent.
It was now a federal crime to be violent, or intimidate, to some someone because of their race/religion. -
Robert F. Kennedy shot
A white American politician, brother of John F Kennedy.
He was the campaign manager for his brother in the 1960 election and served as White House Advisor from 1961-1963.
He was involved with the African-American Civil Rights Movement and the crusade against organised crime and the mafia.
He was shot at an event whilst redirected to a 'shortcut' outside, depite his FBI agent telling him not to go that way. -
Red Power Movement
One of the many Civil Rights Movements; about the growing sense of Indian identity in America.
Also known as the American Indian Movement (AIM) was dedicated to getting the federal government to return land, which was previously owned by Native Americans.
This led to multiple protests in1969. -
Miss America Protest
About 400 feminists tossed a collection of symbolic feminine products (e.g.false eyelashes) into bins on the boardwalk. They did not burn bras.
They successfully unfurled a large banner saying "Women's Liberation" and drew worldwide attention to the Liberation movement.
A newspaper article drew an analogy between the feminist protest and the Vietnam war, thus the term "bra burning"
A smaller protest was organised by a civil rights activist; they crowned their own black Miss America. -
Black Athletes Make Silent Protest
Two gold and bronze medalists stood with their heads bowed and black gloved hand raised (black power, unity)American National Anthem played.
They wore black socks and no shoes (poverty); they were demonstrating against the continuing racial discrimination in the US.
Many people from the crowd booed.
One of the men, with 7 world records said: "If I wim I am an American, but if I did something bad then they would say "A Negro". We are proud of being black. -
Period: to
Republican - Richard Nixon
Signed trade agreements with China and the Soviet Union, thus relaxing the tensions between those countries.
Signed a ceasefire with North Vietnam and withdrew all troops, 1973. -
The Stonewall Riot
Series of spontaneous, violent demonstrations by the LGBT community against a police raid.
Known as the single most important event leading to the gay liberation movement.
The Stonewall Inn was owned by the Mafia and catered for all people in the gay community.
Police raids in gay bars were routine in the 1960s, but this one was particularly violent and out of control.
This lead to 2 gay activist organisations being established the year later. -
Apollo 11/ Moon Landing
Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin were the first people to land on the moon, Armstrong the first to step on the moon.
The Soviet Union was secretly attempting to beat the US with landing a man on the moon, but failed due to poor development. They also tried to beat the US in gaining lunar material; they almost did, but their probe crashed on the way back. -
Nixon Doctrine
US now expects the Asian allies to tend their own military defense.
He wanted to "Vietnamise" the Vietnam war.
The war had already taken many American lives, and Nixon wanted this to end.
American troops were slowly withdrawn and a peace treaty was later signed. -
Woodstock festival
An audience of almost 400,000 people gathered to lhave three nights of sex, drugs and rock music.
The organisers predicted that around 200,000 would turn up, but the fences were knocked down to the influx, so they announced that the concert was free.
It caused huge traffic jams, but there was no violence.
However, there were 2 deaths - teen killed by a tractor whilst in his sleeping bag, another from a drugs overdose. -
Chicago 8 trial
Trial for 8 antiwar activists charged with the responsibility for the violent demonstrations at the August 1968 Democratic National Convention.
The defendants and their attorneys used the court as a platform to attack Nixon, the war, racisim and oppression. The tactics were so disruptive, that the Judge even gagged and strapped a defendant to his chair.
Found them guilty of contempt of court and intent to riot. Had 5 years each.
1972: Court of Appeal overturned the convictions. -
Ken State shootings
President Nixon appeared on TV to announce the invasion of Cambodia for an expansion of the Vietnam War Effort.
This caused protest at Kent State University; protesters launched a demonstration that included setting fire to a building. 900 Guardsmen were called to campus.
28 Guardsmen opened fire on a crowd, killing 4 and wounding 9. Almost 500 colleges were shut down. -
Voting age to 18
Previously age 21, the new voting age was lowered to 18. -
Economic Stabilization Act
A new law that authorised the President to stabilise prices, rents, wages, salaries, interest rates, dividends and others. (have control of them).
There was high inflation and low unemployment, so Nixon decided to cut some jobs to control inflation.
It led to a devaluation of the dollar by 8%. -
Equal Employment Opportunity Act
This gave the EEOC authority to conduct its own legal action against discrimination.
It amended the Civil Rights Act of 1964; although it was illegal to discriminate in the workplace previously, the government didn't really take muuh action to make sure that this did not happen. They now did. -
Rose v. Wade
Roe, a pregnant single woman, challenged the law of Texas by going to court for an abortion.She won her case.
A woman could now have an abortion if it was in-line with the state's main interests: the woman's health and protecting the potentiality of human life. -
End of the Vietnam War
The signing of the Paris Peace Accords ended the Vietnam War.
The terms were: a complete ceasefire in South Vietnam, North Vietnamese forces could retain the captured territory, US prisoners of war released and both sides had to find a political solution.
All US troops left Vietnam. -
Watergate scandal
It was said that Nixon, and members of his administration, were undertaking illegal activities, such as bugging political rivals' offices, harassment of activist groups and political figures.
He ordered people to break into the Democratic National Committee to photograph documents and install listening devices in telephones.
The first break in was successful, but the devices needed to be repaired. A security guard noticed them,
Two defendants are convicted, the case widens... -
The Wounded Knee
Native Americans, led by the AIM set out to occupy the Wounded Knee: the site of the 1890 massacre of 300 Sioux by US cavalry.
They took 11 residents of the town as hostage.
The AIM traded gunfire with the federal marshalls, and fired at cars/planes that came within rifle range.
The occcupation lasted for 71 days; at the end, the AIM surrendered after officials promised to investigate their complaints. -
Oil crisis
Oil imports from Arab oil-producing nations are banned to the US after the start of the Arab-Israeli war.
This created the 1973 energy crisis. Imports would not resume until March 18, 1974. -
"Smoking Guns" tape
In 1974, a tape was released revealing Nixon's plan to make false claims to the FBI. Before this "smoking gun" tape, Nixon denied any involvement with the Watergate Scandal.
More and more secrets were revealed, including: Nixon being part of the cover up, and playing "dirty tricks" to win the next election against the Democrats.
Nixon became very unpopular, as he did lie to the entire nation. He decided to resign; he had no chance of winning the next election. -
Period: to
Republican - Gerald Ford
Inherited severe economic, political and social problems.
Signed Accords to improve relations between the US and the Soviet countries. -
Period: to
Democratic - Jimmy Carter
Worked successfully to improve relations with Latin America.
Helped negotiate the Camp David Accords, 1978, leading to a peace treaty between Israel and Egypt.
Established a national energy policy to stimulate petrol production.
Championed human rights throughout the world.
The Iranian hostage crisis contributed to his defeat. -
Carter energy program opposed
President Carter had to build support for an energy program, as energy was a major problem.
He relied heavily on taxing power to encourage people to shift from large cars to small cars; cut back on miles; insulate homes and workplaces; use other forms of energy, such as solar or nuclear.
Many Americans didn't agree - they didn't want to change their lifestyles and they didn't see the issue of oil that serious.
People didn't help with the rallies, thus the legislation fell short. -
Nuclear-proliferation pact
15 nations, including the US and USSR signed a pact, slowing the spread of nuclear weapons around the world. -
Harvey Milk; Gay Rights
In San Francisco, the gay rights activist was elected to the board of supervisors.
This was a major milestone in gay liberation.
He wanted to change the stereotypical views about gays, create a local framework that supports gays (including th gay rights bill) and speaking out against legislation which restricts gays' civil rights.
He was a business owner and boycotted businesses against gays, but also reached out to the gay youth. -
'The Longest Walk'
It was an AIM-led 3,200 mile spiritual walk to bring attention to some anti-Indian legislation.
The US Congress voted against repealing those legislations, but they did pass the AMerican Indian Religious Freedom Act, which allowed them the use of the peyote in worship. -
Harvey Milk Assassinated
Milk was feeling the effect of his decrease in income; after his death, his friends saw that his clothes had holes in and were tearing about.
He was assassinated by Dan White: another city supervisor who had recently resigned but wanted his job back. -
National March on Washington for Lesbian and Gay Rights
It was inspired by the assassination of Harvey Milk.
It supported the end of anti-homosexual laws and a push for a ban on discrimination based on sexuality. -
Iranian Hostage Crisis
A group of Iranian students stormed into the US Embassy in Tehran, Iran, taking more than 60 American hostages.
Iran were outraged that the Shah (King), who was expelled from Iran, was allowed in the US for cancer treatment.
This was to declare a break with Iran's past, and and end American interference with its affairs.
It was also to raise awareness of the new revolution's leader (who was Anti-American). -
First case of AIDS
The USA became the first country to recognise the illness.
It was seen in numerous men of different religions - the only connection was that they were gay. -
Race riots - Miami
Race riots in Miami after an African-Amerrican died from injuries caused by 4 white officers trying to arrest him
The officers were found not guilty to all charges.
The riots were extremely violent; 18 dies, 350 (some of which were children) were injured and over 600 were arrested. Property destruction was over $100 million. -
Operation Eagle Claw
President Carter launched a risky military rescue mission.
It was supposed to send an elite rescue team into the embassy compound.
There was a severe desert sandstorm on the day of the mission - this caused several helicopers to malfunction.
One helicopter crashed, 8 servicemen were killed, and the Operation was aborted. -
Reaganomics
He announced that the plan would fix the nation's economic mess.
He planned a 30% tax cut for the first three years; most of the cut would be to rich people, so they were able to spend and invest more. This would stimulate the economy and create new jobs.
This didn't work at first - there was a deep recession in 1981/2 with inflation and high interest rates, making exports more expensive. The economy stabilised in 1983.
Reagan also planned to spend more in defense. -
Period: to
Republican - Ronald Reagan
Survived an assassination attempt after 3 months being in office.
Set out to restore confidence in the USA.
Significantly increased defense spending, seeking "peace through strength."
Ordered the invasion of Grenada, to stop a Marxist coup. -
MTV first aired
"The Buggles - Video killed the Radio Star" was the first song to be sung.
The first music videos were very basic, but soon the music industry realised the value of good videos, so they invested in making more creative videos.
MTV went on to revolutionise the music industry, and it became an influentiall source of pop culture and entertainment. -
"Just Say No Campaign"
A campaign to discourage children from engaging in illegal recreational drug use.
It offered various ways of saying no.
It then extended to cover violence and premarital sex.
It was created by First Lady Nancy Reagan during Ronald Reagan's presidency.
She travelled the US and abroad, visited drug rehabilitation centers, on TV talk shows, wrote guest articles and much more.
1985: she took the campaign internationally & the First Lady invited to address the United Nations. -
Highest unemployment rate
Highest unemployment rate since 1940, at 10.4%. -
Social Security Amendments
Continues the Secoial security benefits for disabled widowers and disabled people.
Eliminates nearly all remaining gender-based distinctions.
Provides cost of living increases based on prices (whichever's less) if it falls below a certain level.
Taxation of Social security benefits introduced.
Retirement age increases to 66 and 67. -
March on Washington for Lesbian and Gay Rights
A large political march, which is referred to as "The Great March" in gay history.
The demands were: legal recognition of gay relationships; passage of the gay civil rights bill; end of discrimination against people with AIDS and increases in funding for AIDS education, research and patient care.
End to racism and apartheid.
Former National organisation for Women (NOW) president spoke. -
Black Monday
Stock market crash in the New York Stock Exchange, recorded a 22.6% drop in one day.
Stock markets around the world felt drops of their own. -
Civil Rights Restoration Act
It restored federal protections for minorities, women, the elderly and disabled individuals.
It was to restore the Education Amendments of 972, the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, the Age Discrimination Act of 1975 and the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
Presiden Reagan vetoed the Act, despite it winning a majority vote in the House and the Senate.
The Chairman of the National Republican Senatorial Committee 'implored' Reagan. The vote to overide the veto won, and it was eventually passed. -
Period: to
Republican - George H, W, Bush
Bailed out the savings and loan industry, when many savings and loands faced severe financial difficulty.
Sent troops to Panama, 1989, to overthrow and arrest th dictator.
Collapse of communism - tearing down of the Berlin Wall, 1989.
Persian Gulf War, 1991, united international forces in driving Iraq out of Kuwait.
Poor economy led to his defeat. -
First episode of The Simpsons launched
The first episode of the humourous cartoon was launched, and began to influence the entertainment industry.
It became a significant source of entertainment for Americans, and later the rest of the world. -
Largest art theft
The largest Art Theft in US history occurs in Boston.
Two thieves posed as policemen, and stole twelve paintings woorth about $100-$200 million -
Gulf War
Ira invades Kuwait.
US begins a global ban on trade against Ira.
US demands that Ira must withdraw from Kuwait, by 15th January 1991, or face military intervention. -
Ryan White CARE Act
An Act to amend thw Public Health Service Act to provide grants to families; the grants would be used to improve the quality and availability of care for people with HIV and AIDS. -
Gulf war ends
January 12: Operation Desert Sorm begins; US organises air strikes against Ira.
The war ends as Ira removes its forces and sets the oil fields on fire. They accept the terms of disarmament and removl of Irai chemical weapons. -
Rodney King riots- A series of riots, lootings, arsons and civil disturbance.
The worst riots, in terms of death toll, since riots in 1863.
White officers were videotaped beating Rodney King, following a high-speed police pursuit of King.
The officers were acquitted (innocent) and this led to thousands of people rioting.
The local police couldn't handle the situation, and it only stopped when members of the California Army National Guard and the Marine Division interferred.
Property damage was over $1 billion, 53 were killed and over 2,000 were injured.