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Period: to
Indigenous (Precolonial) to the The Colonial Era
9000 BCE to 1492, 40-90 million people with diverse educational practices inhabited North America. The Colonial Era is characterized by the forced transition from Indigenous learning approaches to European-influenced schooling. Colonial education varied by region (New England, Middle Colonies, the South). Deculturalization of Native peoples began, while formal schooling becomes intertwined with the slave trade. (Janak, 2019) -
1636: Chartering of Harvard College
The Massachusetts General Court charters a college in Newtown (Cambridge), later named Harvard College, for “the education of English and Indian youth" marking the establishment of the first college in British North America. (Wilder, 2014, p. 24) -
1637: Mystic Massacre
Captain John Mason leads English forces in the Pequot War, culminating in the Mystic massacre where 500 Pequot (pee·kwaat) people were killed, demonstrating the brutal militarization of colonial New England. (Wilder, 2014). -
1638: First Enslaved Africans in Massachusetts
The ship Desire returns to Boston from the West Indies, bringing the first recorded enslaved Africans to Massachusetts, closely tying the birth of slavery in New England to the founding of Harvard. (Mass Moments, 2007; Wilder, 2014). -
1647: Massachusetts Compulsory Attendance Law
The General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony decrees that every town of 50 families should have an elementary school and that every town of 100 families should have a Latin school. (Race Forward, n.d.; Mass Moments, n.d.). -
1655: Opening of the Indian College at Harvard
Harvard President Charles Chauncy opens the Indian College, the first brick structure on Harvard Yard, designed to assimilate indigenous students as part of the colonial mission of Native christian conversion (Harvard Gazette, 2016; Wilder, 2014). -
1665: First Wampanoag Graduate
Caleb Cheeshahteaumuck becomes the first (and only) Native student to graduate from Harvard during the colonial period; he died of tuberculosis in Watertown, Massachusetts less than a year after graduation. (Harvard Gazette, 2016; Wilder, 2014). -
1675-1676: King Phillip's War
Chief Metacomet (King Philip) leads the Wampanoag in war against colonists. Puritan encroachment on native lands, religious antagonism, and economic (trade and land) exploitation ignited when colonists executed Wampanoag men for the death of John Sassamon (Harvard, Christian-convert translator; fraudulently transcribed & defrauded his tribe). This in turn redirected Colonists' educate/convert doctrine. (Wilder, 2014). -
1680: Belcher's Elizabeth Slaving Mission
Andrew Belcher sent the Elizabeth on a slaving mission, killing at least 22 and bringing over 100 enslaved Africans to Rhode Island. One of the first prolific slavers in New England, his obituary notes he was a very great Merchant” who amassed “a considerable Estate," which funded his son's education at Boston’s Latin School and Harvard College. (Wilder, 2014, p. 16). -
1693: Dismantling of Harvard's Indian College
Harvard's Indian College is dismantled, resulting from the declining emphasis on Native American education and the shift in colonial attitudes following King Philip's War. (Peabody Museum, 2009; Wilder, 2014). -
1693: College of William and Mary Charter
King William III and Queen Mary II grant a charter for the College of William and Mary in Virginia, funded partly by duties on tobacco exports, linking the college's establishment to the colonial slave economy. (Wilder, 2014). -
1729: Appointment of Belcher As Govenor
King George II appoints Jonathan Belcher as governor of Massachusetts, making him an ex officio trustee of Harvard and giving him authority over Indian missions in New England. (Wilder, 2014). -
1732: Berkeley's Donation to Yale
George Berkeley donates Whitehall, his Rhode Island plantation, to Yale, increasing the college's real estate holdings and ties to slavery. The college rents Whitehall to slaveholding tenants for decades. (Wilder, 2014). -
1741: New York Conspiracy Trials
Trials (May-August) led to the execution of 34 people accused of plotting a (potentially imagined) slave revolt. Suspected culprits included hundreds of New York's slaves, free Blacks, and lower-class whites, 172 of whom were arrested and tried for conspiracy to burn the town & murder its white inhabitants. (Jackson, 2023; Wilder, 2014). -
1746: Livingston's Endowment at Yale
Philip Livingston donates money for the Livingston Professorship in Divinity at Yale, the first endowed chair at the college, showing how slave trade wealth directly funded academic positions.
(Scarlet and Black Digital Archive, 1752; Wilder, 2014) -
Period: to
Ascent of Slaver Merchants as Institutional Benefactors
Slaver merchants ascend as the major patrons and guardians of colonial society by supporting a proliferation of new colleges: The College of New Jersey (Princeton, 1746), the College of Philadelphia (University of Pennsylvania, 1749), King’s (Columbia, 1754), the College of Rhode Island (Brown, 1764), Queen’s College (Rutgers, 1766), and Dartmouth College (1769) in New Hampshire. (Wilder, 2014) -
1746: Founding of the College of New Jersey (Princeton)
The College of New Jersey (later Princeton) is founded, marking the beginning of a period of rapid growth in colonial higher education closely tied to the peak of the African slave trade. (Wilder, 2014). -
1751: Livingston's Slaving Ship Wolf
"Lingering doubts about their ability to control enslaved people had led white northerners to demand children, whom they believed to be less rebellious and more susceptible to Christian instruction;" as a result, the_Wolf's_slaving voyage had a higher than average ratio of child deaths. (Wilder, 2014, p. 29). -
1754: Charter of King's College (Columbia)
King's College (now Columbia University) is chartered; prominent slave traders and merchants composing many of its founding trustees. (New York Historical Society, 2014; Wilder, 2014). -
1764: Sally & College of Rhode Island Charter (Brown)
The College of Rhode Island (later Brown University) is chartered in the same year that the Brown brothers' ship Sally--between a revolt, murder, suicide, and illness--returned with only 88 of the original 196 captives. (Wilder, 2014). -
1765: Boylston Professorship Endowment
Nicholas Boylston, a Boston merchant enriched by the slave trade, bequeaths £1,500 to Harvard for the Boylston Professorship of Rhetoric and Oratory, one of the university's first endowed chairs. (Wilder, 2014). -
1766: Livingston & Queen's College
Philip Livingston becomes a founding trustee of Queen's College (later Rutgers) while also being a donor to King's College (Scarlet and Black Digital Archive, 1752; Wilder, 2014). -
1770: Dartmouth College Founded
Eleazar Wheelock arrives in Hanover with students, family, and eight enslaved black people to establish Dartmouth College. (Wilder, 2014). -
Period: to
1776-1820s: Early National Period
This era saw the birth of American public education. Federal dispersement of stolen Native land through land grant (grab) institutions, state legislation focused on schooling mandates, and the foundational exploitation of enslaved bodies by institutional trustees to support higher education. (Janak, 2019) -
1772: Princeton's Caribbean Campaign
The trustees of the College of New Jersey approve a campaign to recruit students and donors from West Indian plantations, resulting 7/16 graduates and no donors. "The college’s efforts to find benefactors among West Indian plantation owners reveal the social and economic networks that kept Princeton running." (Mack, 2018, para. 4; Wilder, 2014). -
1779: Bill for the More General Diffusion of Knowledge
Part of a larger revision of Virginia's laws after independence, Thomas Jefferson's proposed Bill outlined a plan for establishing a 3-tier (elementary, grammar, and college) public education system; a primary only version was passed in 1796. (Meyers, 2018). -
8,000 B.P. - 1784: Alutiiq Education
The Kodiak Alutiiq people lived in the Kodiak Archipelago (Alaska) for over 7,500 years, developing an life-integrated educational system (daily experiences, apprenticeships, oral tradition) that honed practical skills, cultural values, and traditional knowledge. Alutiiq knowledge systems including ocean navigation, weather prediction, engineering, hunting expertise, resource management, and medicinal plant knowledge. (Drabek, 2012). -
1787: The Northwest Ordinance
A series of laws from the Continental Congress that allocated nearly a million acres of land in Ohio, setting aside townships for establishing institutions of higher learning. This led to the founding of Ohio University, Miami University, and Western Reserve College (now Case Western University). (McCoy et al., 2021; Race Forward, n.d.). -
1790: Pennsylvania Constitution on Public Education
The 1790 and 1838 Pennsylvania state constitutions mandate free public education for poor children--expecting the rich to fund their children's schooling. (Hoover, 2020; Race Forward, n.d.). -
1793: UNC Chapel Hill Construction
Enslaved black laborers begin constructing the University of North Carolina after the cornerstone-laying ceremony. (McMillan, 2017; Wilder, 2014). -
1805: New York Public School Society
Formed by wealthy businessmen to provide education for poor children. These schools emphasize discipline and obedience qualities that factory owners want in their workers. (McCarthy et al., 2014; Race Forward, n.d.). -
1808: The Assault & Trial of Lucy Williams
Williams (a "mulattress") bears a baby girl with a lighter complexion in 1807, leading to a "bastardry trial" in New York. Raped first by Whistelo (a Black man); second, by an unnamed white man who "turned the black man out [of bed] with a pistol" . Mayor DeWitt Clinton rules in favor of Whistelo, based largely on contradicting scientific testimony on race from medical experts and academics. (Wilder, 2014, p.148) -
1811: UNC Students Riot
Students at the University of North Carolina riot, attacking college servants and firing a gun at an enslaved child, illustrating a larger pattern of student violence against enslaved people on campuses. (Wilder, 2014). -
1817: Petition for Free Primary Education in Boston
A petition presented in the Boston Town Meeting calls for establishing of a system of free public primary schools. Main support comes from local merchants, businessmen and wealthier artisans. Many wage earners oppose it, because they don't want to pay the taxes. (Race Forward, n.d.) -
1820: English Classical (High) School
First public high school in the U.S., Boston English, opens, first called English Classical School, later renamed English High School in 1824. (Ebben, 2022; The English High School Association, 2021). -
1827: An Act to Provide for Instruction of Youth
Massachusetts passes a law making all grades of public school open to all pupils free of charge. (Race Forward, n.d.; Commonwealth of Massachusetts, 1827). -
1829: UNC Leasing Enslaved Black Labors to Students
From 1830s-1845, students were permitted to bring enslaved people from home with them to campus. After 1845, UNC prohibited this, but continued a leasing program that enabled students to rent enslaved Black people from the University. On November 25, a UNC graduate issued rewards for the capture of James, an enslaved Black man who had been trafficked to work at the university for four years and had escaped. (Equal Justice Initiative, 2020). -
1830s: Free & Enslaved Black Anti-literacy Laws
By 1830, Georgia, North Carolina, Virginia, and Louisiana enact enslaved & free Black anti-literacy laws (fines, flogging, imprisonment, etc); antebellum South Carolina laws “were exceptionally repressive” due to their high ratio of free Black people. Though sources vary, around 5-10% percent become literate at great personal risk. (Cornelius, 1983; Span, 2005, p. 27) -
Period: to
1830s-1860s: The Common Era
Marked by Horace Mann's vision of "common schools", this period saw the development of a more standardized public education system. Key features included the rise of normal schools for teacher training, standardization of school buildings and curricula the expansion of public high schools, and Black (enslaved and free) anti-literacy laws. (Janak, 2019) -
1847: An Act Respecting Slaves, Free Negros, and Mulattoes
The trend of anti-literacy laws continue when the Missouri State Legislature bans the teaching of reading and writing to all Black Missourians (free or enslaved). Religious services without a White official are also prohibited. (Missouri State Archives, 2023) -
1862: Morrill Land Grant Act
The Morrill Land Grant Act was passed, resulting in the expropriation of nearly 11 million acres of land from about 250 Indigenous tribes, bands, and communities to establish land-grant universities. (McCoy et al, 2021.) -
1875: Francis W. Parker's Reforms
Francis W. Parker, as superintendent in Quincy, Massachusetts, popularized concepts like student participation in curriculum, kindergarten, and teacher specialization. (Janak, 2019) -
1887: The Hatch Act
Provided funding for agricultural research at land-grant institutions, further benefiting from the earlier land seizures but not extending these benefits to Tribal Colleges and Universities (TCUs). (McCoy et al, 2021.) -
Period: to
1890s-1920s: The Progressive Era
Characterized by widespread educational reforms, including the rise of child-centered progressivism, administrative progressivism, and social reconstructionism. John Dewey's influential work, the growth of vocational education, and the expansion of schools' roles to include extracurricular activities/community services, and racial segregation are all hallmarks of the era. (Janak, 2019) -
1896: Plessy v. Ferguson
The Supreme Court ruled that "separate but equal" was constitutional, impacting educational segregation. (Janak, 2019) -
1904: University of Chicago Laboratory School
John Dewey founded the Laboratory School, pioneering whole child education and practical learning situations. (Janak, 2019) -
1906: Formation of the NCAA
The Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States (later NCAA) formed to regulate interscholastic athletic competitions. (Janak, 2019) -
1914: The Smith-Lever Act
Established the Cooperative Extension Service (CES) to educate rural Americans about agricultural practices and technology to help increase agricultural productivity through USDA and land-grant university partnerships. Provided additional aid to land-grant institutions, building on the benefits of seized Indigenous lands while excluding TCUs from these financial advantages. (McCoy et al, 2021.) -
1917: Smith-Hughes Act
This act provided federal funds for vocational education in American secondary schools and teacher training in colleges. (Janak, 2019) -
1927: Gong Lum v. Rice
The Supreme Court ruled in favor of a Mississippi school district excluding a student of Chinese ancestry from white schools. (Janak, 2019) -
1932: Alvarez v. Lemon Grove
This case became the first successful school desegregation court decision in the United States, though limited to Mexican families in the community. (Janak, 2019) -
Period: to
1954-1983: The Five E's Period in American Education
Characterized by efforts towards Equality (desegregation, civil rights), Excellence (focus on math and science), Expansion (accommodating Baby Boomers), Expertise (growing diversity in administration), and Emancipation (from local control). Increased federal involvement, rapid educational reforms, and growing critiques of public education culminated in calls for significant interventions by the early 1980s. (Janak, 2019) -
1954: Brown v. Board of Education
The Supreme Court ruled that "separate but equal" was inherently unequal, ordering schools to desegregate with "all deliberate speed". (Janak, 2019, p.70) -
1957: Sputnik Launch
The Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik led to increased focus on science and math education in the U.S., sparking curriculum reforms. (Janak, 2019) -
1958: National Defense Education Act
Provided federal support for teaching in science, math, and foreign language in response to Sputnik. (Janak, 2019) -
1962: Engel v. Vitale
The Supreme Court ruled that state-mandated prayers in public schools were unconstitutional. (Janak, 2019) -
1965: Elementary and Secondary Education Act
Initiated significant federal aid to public education, including funding for materials, special education, and Head Start programs. (Janak, 2019) -
1969: Tinker v. Des Moines
The Supreme Court ruled that students have the right to freedom of expression in schools, as long as it doesn't disrupt the learning environment. (Janak, 2019) -
1971: Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg
The Supreme Court ruled that mandatory busing to achieve racial integration in schools was constitutional. (Janak, 2019) -
1972: Title IX
Part of the Higher Education Act, Title IX mandated sex equity in educational institutions receiving federal funding. (Janak, 2019) -
1975: Education for All Handicapped Children Act
Provided "free appropriate public education" for all students with disabilities. (Janak, 2019) -
1979: Department of Education Established
President Jimmy Carter established the Department of Education as a separate cabinet-level entity.
(Janak, 2019) -
1983: A Nation At Risk Report
This report critiqued the state of American education, claiming the U.S. had engaged in "unilateral educational disarmament". (Janak, 2019) -
1994: The Equity in Educational Land-Grant Status Act (EELGSA)
Conferred land-grant status on 29 tribal colleges without providing land endowments. It offered limited funding and competitive grants, creating an unequal system compared to the original land-grant institutions. (McCoy et al, 2021.)