-
Period: to
Indigenous (Precolonial) to the The Colonial Era
9000 BCE to 1492, 40-90 million people with diverse educational practices inhabited North America. The Colonial Era is characterized by the forced transition from Indigenous learning approaches to European-influenced schooling. Colonial education varied by region (New England, Middle Colonies, the South). Deculturalization of Native peoples began, while formal schooling becomes intertwined with the slave trade. (Janak, 2019) -
1636: Chartering of Harvard College
The Massachusetts General Court charters a college in Newtown (Cambridge), later named Harvard College, for “the education of English and Indian youth" marking the establishment of the first college in British North America. (Wilder, 2014, p. 24) -
1637: Mystic Massacre
Captain John Mason leads English forces in the Pequot War, culminating in the Mystic massacre where 500 Pequot (pee·kwaat) people were killed, demonstrating the brutal militarization of colonial New England. (Wilder, 2014). -
1638: First Enslaved Africans in Massachusetts
The ship Desire returns to Boston from the West Indies, bringing the first recorded enslaved Africans to Massachusetts, closely tying the birth of slavery in New England to the founding of Harvard. (Mass Moments, 2007; Wilder, 2014). -
1647: Massachusetts Compulsory Attendance Law
The General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony decrees that every town of 50 families should have an elementary school and that every town of 100 families should have a Latin school. (Race Forward, n.d.; Mass Moments, n.d.). -
1655: Opening of the Indian College at Harvard
Harvard President Charles Chauncy opens the Indian College, the first brick structure on Harvard Yard, designed to assimilate indigenous students as part of the colonial mission of Native christian conversion (Harvard Gazette, 2016; Wilder, 2014). -
1665: First Wampanoag Graduate
Caleb Cheeshahteaumuck becomes the first (and only) Native student to graduate from Harvard during the colonial period; he died of tuberculosis in Watertown, Massachusetts less than a year after graduation. (Harvard Gazette, 2016; Wilder, 2014). -
1675-1676: King Phillip's War
Chief Metacomet (King Philip) leads the Wampanoag in war against colonists. Puritan encroachment on native lands, religious antagonism, and economic (trade and land) exploitation ignited when colonists executed Wampanoag men for the death of John Sassamon (Harvard, Christian-convert translator; fraudulently transcribed & defrauded his tribe). This in turn redirected Colonists' educate/convert doctrine. (Wilder, 2014). -
1680: Belcher's Elizabeth Slaving Mission
Andrew Belcher sent the Elizabeth on a slaving mission, killing at least 22 and bringing over 100 enslaved Africans to Rhode Island. One of the first prolific slavers in New England, his obituary notes he was a very great Merchant” who amassed “a considerable Estate," which funded his son's education at Boston’s Latin School and Harvard College. (Wilder, 2014, p. 16). -
1693: Dismantling of Harvard's Indian College
Harvard's Indian College is dismantled, resulting from the declining emphasis on Native American education and the shift in colonial attitudes following King Philip's War. (Peabody Museum, 2009; Wilder, 2014). -
1693: College of William and Mary Charter
King William III and Queen Mary II grant a charter for the College of William and Mary in Virginia, funded partly by duties on tobacco exports, linking the college's establishment to the colonial slave economy. (Wilder, 2014). -
1729: Appointment of Belcher As Govenor
King George II appoints Jonathan Belcher as governor of Massachusetts, making him an ex officio trustee of Harvard and giving him authority over Indian missions in New England. (Wilder, 2014). -
1732: Berkeley's Donation to Yale
George Berkeley donates Whitehall, his Rhode Island plantation, to Yale, increasing the college's real estate holdings and ties to slavery. The college rents Whitehall to slaveholding tenants for decades. (Wilder, 2014). -
1741: New York Conspiracy Trials
Trials (May-August) led to the execution of 34 people accused of plotting a (potentially imagined) slave revolt. Suspected culprits included hundreds of New York's slaves, free Blacks, and lower-class whites, 172 of whom were arrested and tried for conspiracy to burn the town & murder its white inhabitants. (Jackson, 2023; Wilder, 2014). -
1746: Livingston's Endowment at Yale
Philip Livingston donates money for the Livingston Professorship in Divinity at Yale, the first endowed chair at the college, showing how slave trade wealth directly funded academic positions.
(Scarlet and Black Digital Archive, 1752; Wilder, 2014) -
Period: to
Ascent of Slaver Merchants as Institutional Benefactors
Slaver merchants ascend as the major patrons and guardians of colonial society by supporting a proliferation of new colleges: The College of New Jersey (Princeton, 1746), the College of Philadelphia (University of Pennsylvania, 1749), King’s (Columbia, 1754), the College of Rhode Island (Brown, 1764), Queen’s College (Rutgers, 1766), and Dartmouth College (1769) in New Hampshire. (Wilder, 2014) -
1746: The College of New Jersey (Princeton)
The College of New Jersey (later Princeton) is founded, marking the beginning of a period of rapid growth in colonial higher education closely tied to the peak of the African slave trade. (Wilder, 2014). -
1751: Livingston's Slaving Ship Wolf
"Lingering doubts about their ability to control enslaved people had led white northerners to demand children, whom they believed to be less rebellious and more susceptible to Christian instruction;" as a result, the Wolf's slaving voyage had a higher than average ratio of child deaths. (Wilder, 2014, p. 29). -
1754: Samuel Martin's Plantation Manual
Samuel Martin publishes a manual describing a plantation as a well-constructed machine with "Negroes, cattle, mules, and horses" as its "nerves". This represents an early conceptualization of slaves as mechanical parts in plantation operations. (Fiori, 2020) -
1754: Charter of King's College (Columbia)
King's College (now Columbia University) is chartered; prominent slave traders and merchants composing many of its founding trustees. (New York Historical Society, 2014; Wilder, 2014). -
1764: Sally & College of Rhode Island Charter (Brown)
The College of Rhode Island (later Brown University) is chartered in the same year that the Brown brothers' ship Sally--between a revolt, murder, suicide, and illness--returned with only 88 of the original 196 captives. (Wilder, 2014). -
1765: Harvard Boylston Professorship Endowment
Nicholas Boylston, a Boston merchant enriched by the slave trade, bequeaths £1,500 to Harvard for the Boylston Professorship of Rhetoric and Oratory, one of the university's first endowed chairs. (Wilder, 2014). -
1766: Livingston & Queen's College
Philip Livingston becomes a founding trustee of Queen's College (later Rutgers) while also being a donor to King's College (Scarlet and Black Digital Archive, 1752; Wilder, 2014). -
1770s: Plantations Steam-Powered Mills
Caribbean sugar plantations begin incorporating steam-powered mills, marking the start of industrial technology in plantation slavery. This shift initiates the fusion of black slaves with industrial machines. (Fiori, 2020) -
1770: Dartmouth College Founded
Eleazar Wheelock arrives in Hanover with students, family, and eight enslaved black people to establish Dartmouth College. (Wilder, 2014). -
Period: to
1776-1820s: Early National Period
This era saw the birth of American public education. Federal dispersement of stolen Native land through land grant (grab) institutions, state legislation focused on schooling mandates, and the foundational exploitation of enslaved bodies by institutional trustees to support higher education. (Janak, 2019) -
1772: Princeton's Caribbean Campaign
The trustees of the College of New Jersey approve a campaign to recruit students and donors from West Indian plantations, resulting 7/16 graduates and no donors. "The college’s efforts to find benefactors among West Indian plantation owners reveal the social and economic networks that kept Princeton running." (Mack, 2018, para. 4; Wilder, 2014). -
1779: Bill for the More General Diffusion of Knowledge
Part of a larger revision of Virginia's laws after independence, Thomas Jefferson's proposed Bill outlined a plan for establishing a 3-tier (elementary, grammar, and college) public education system; a primary only version was passed in 1796. (Meyers, 2018). -
8,000 B.P. - 1784: Alutiiq Education
The Kodiak Alutiiq people lived in the Kodiak Archipelago (Alaska) for over 7,500 years, developing an life-integrated educational system (daily experiences, apprenticeships, oral tradition) that honed practical skills, cultural values, and traditional knowledge. Alutiiq knowledge systems including ocean navigation, weather prediction, engineering, hunting expertise, resource management, and medicinal plant knowledge. (Drabek, 2012). -
1787: The Northwest Ordinance
A series of laws from the Continental Congress that allocated nearly a million acres of land in Ohio, setting aside townships for establishing institutions of higher learning. This led to the founding of Ohio University, Miami University, and Western Reserve College (now Case Western University). (McCoy et al., 2021; Race Forward, n.d.). -
1790: Pennsylvania Constitution on Public Education
The 1790 and 1838 Pennsylvania state constitutions mandate free public education for poor children--expecting the rich to fund their children's schooling. (Hoover, 2020; Race Forward, n.d.). -
1791: Haitian Revolution Begins
The slave uprising in Saint-Domingue (later Haiti) starts, leading to heightened anxiety among planters and spurring efforts to reform plantation management and rearticulate the extraction of energy from black bodies. (Fiori, 2020) -
1793: UNC Chapel Hill Construction
Enslaved black laborers begin constructing the University of North Carolina after the cornerstone-laying ceremony. (McMillan, 2017; Wilder, 2014). -
1805: New York Public School Society
Formed by wealthy businessmen to provide education for poor children. These schools emphasize discipline and obedience qualities that factory owners want in their workers. (McCarthy et al., 2014; Race Forward, n.d.). -
1807: British Prohibition of Slave Trade
Britain prohibits the slave trade for all domestic and satellite British Subjects, severely limiting the supply of new African captives to the US Caribbean market. This led to increased industrialization of plantations to maintain productivity, dependence on smuggled imports via Cuba and Brazil, and increased domestic trade. (Fiori, 2020; Little, 2019) -
1808: The Assault & Trial of Lucy Williams
Williams (a "mulattress") bears a baby girl with a lighter complexion in 1807, leading to a "bastardry trial" in New York. Raped first by Whistelo (a Black man); second, by an unnamed white man who "turned the black man out [of bed] with a pistol" . Mayor DeWitt Clinton rules in favor of Whistelo, based largely on contradicting scientific testimony on race from medical experts and academics. (Wilder, 2014, p.148) -
1811: UNC Students Riot
Students at the University of North Carolina riot, attacking the college's enslaved Black laborers, and firing a gun at an enslaved child, illustrating a larger pattern of student violence against enslaved people on campuses. (Wilder, 2014). -
1817: Petition for Free Primary Education in Boston
A petition presented in the Boston Town meeting calls for establishing of a system of free public primary schools. Main support comes from local merchants, businessmen and wealthier artisans. Many wage earners oppose it, because they don't want to pay the taxes. (Race Forward, n.d.) -
1820: English Classical (High) School
First public high school opens in Boston, first called English Classical School, later renamed English High School in 1824. (Ebben, 2022; The English High School Association, 2021). -
1827: An Act to Provide for Instruction of Youth
Massachusetts passes a law making all grades of public school open to all pupils free of charge. (Race Forward, n.d.; Commonwealth of Massachusetts, 1827). -
1829: UNC Leases Enslaved Black Labors to Students
From 1830s-1845, students were permitted to bring enslaved people from home with them to campus. After 1845, UNC prohibited this, but continued a leasing program that enabled students to rent enslaved Black people from the University. On November 25, a UNC graduate issued rewards for the capture of James, an enslaved Black man who had been trafficked to work at the university for four years and had escaped. (Equal Justice Initiative, 2020). -
1830s: Free & Enslaved Black Anti-literacy Laws
By 1830, Georgia, North Carolina, Virginia, and Louisiana enact enslaved & free Black anti-literacy laws (fines, flogging, imprisonment, etc); antebellum South Carolina laws “were exceptionally repressive” due to their high ratio of free Black people. Though sources vary, around 5-10% percent become literate at great personal risk. (Cornelius, 1983; Span, 2005, p. 27) -
Period: to
1830s-1860s: The Common Era
Marked by Horace Mann's vision of "common schools", this period saw the development of a more standardized public education system. Key features included the rise of normal schools for teacher training, standardization of school buildings and curricula the expansion of public high schools, and Black (enslaved and free) anti-literacy laws. (Janak, 2019) -
1837: Establishment of the African Institute (Cheyney University)
Cheyney University, the first Historically Black College and University (HBCU), was founded in Pennsylvania. (Hawkins, 2010) -
1847: An Act Respecting Slaves, Free Negros, and Mulattoes
The trend of anti-literacy laws continue when the Missouri State Legislature bans the teaching of reading and writing to all Black Missourians (free or enslaved). Religious services without a White official are also prohibited. (Missouri State Archives, 2023) -
1849: Roberts v. City of Boston
Benjamin Roberts sued Boston on behalf of his daughter Sarah (5), challenging school segregation. The Boston Primary School Committee denied Benjamin Roberts' request to enroll his daughter into a closer school, aware that she had to walk past five White schools to get to her assigned institution. Despite arguments that segregation was discriminatory and harmful, the court ruled in favor of the school committee. (Ladson-Billings, 2021) -
1850s: "Pushing System" in Cotton Plantations
American cotton plantations implement the "pushing system", using systematic torture to enforce steadily increased daily quotas. This system treats slaves as "hands" in a machine-like process, pushing human bodies to machine-like productivity. (Fiori, 2020) -
1852: First US intercollegiate athletic competition
The first intercollegiate athletic "boating" competition was held between Harvard and Yale in the sport of rowing. (Donnor, 2021, p. 168) -
1854: Establishment of Lincoln University
Lincoln University, the second HBCU, was founded in Pennsylvania. (Hawkins, 2010) -
1856: Establishment of Wilberforce University
Wilberforce University, the third HBCU, was founded in Ohio. (Hawkins, 2010) -
1857: Dred Scott v. Sanford
Dred and Harriet Scott file separate freedom suits against enslaver Dr. John & Irene Emerson in Missouri state court. Their case was strong, based on precedent that living in free territory made a slave free. The Supreme Court, led by Chief Justice Taney, declared that Black Americans were not citizens and that Congress had no power to restrict slavery in the territories. (Pittman, 2024) -
1859: New Mexico Passes Slave Code
New Mexico territory passes a strict slave code, implementing Dred Scott's holding that Congress could not ban slavery in the territories. This action further fuels Northern opposition to the decision. (Booth, 2024) -
1857-1861: Northern States Contradict Dred Scott
Several Northern states passed laws declaring their Black residents citizens & expanded their rights in direct opposition to Dred Scott. Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, Maine, Ohio, and Connecticut passed legislation declaring their Black residents to be citizens in 1857; Anderson v. Poindexter (1859) declared enslaved people brought to Ohio became immediately free. Booth, 2024 -
1861: Some Tribes Side with Confederacy
The Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole tribes, collectively known as the "Civilized Tribes," align with the Confederacy. Slavery was practiced among these tribes, with enslaved Black laborers comprising 14% of Indian Territory's population. The tribes signed treaties with the Confederacy, in anticipation of potential statehood. (Hylton, 2013, para. 3) -
1862: Congress Bans Slavery in Federal Territories
The Republican-controlled Congress passes a bill banning slavery in federal territories, in direct defiance of the Dred Scott decision's holding that Congress lacked such power. (Booth, 2024) -
1862: Morrill Land Grant Act
The Morrill Land Grant Act resulted in the expropriation of nearly 11 million acres of land from about 250 Indigenous tribes, bands, and communities to establish land-grant (grab) universities. (McCoy et al, 2021.) -
1863: Emancipation Proclamation
President Lincoln issues the Emancipation Proclamation, freeing slaves in rebellious states. -
1863: Cherokee Abolish Slavery
John Ross, president of the Cherokee Nation, influences the National Council of the Cherokee Nation to repudiate their Confederate treaty and abolish slavery. This action indicates that neither the 1862 Act nor the Emancipation Proclamation were seen as applying to Indian Territory. (Hylton, 2013; Moulton, 2010) -
1865: 13th Amendment Ratified
Legally abolished slavery and involuntary servitude in the US with limited practicality. "Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction." (Thomas, 2023, p. 255) -
1866: Civil Rights Act
Legally granted citizenship and nominally provide equality under the law to former slaves. Tourgée (Plessy's lawyer in Plessy v. Ferguson) later argued this act showed the Fourteenth Amendment was not intended to be colorblind. (Thomas, 2023) -
1866: Treaties End Slavery in Indian Territory
The U.S. government signs new treaties with each "Civilized" Tribe, requiring them to abolish slavery. The Creek Tribe's ratification on June 14, 1866, marks the official end of legal slavery in the continental U.S. one day after Congress approved the 14th Amendment. (Hylton, 2013, para. 3) -
1868: 14th Amendment Ratified
Aimed to address racial inequality after the Civil War through 4 clauses: (1) Citizenship Clause (2) Privileges and Immunities Clause (3) Due Process Clause (4) Equal Protection Clause (Thomas, 2023; Lash, 2021) -
1875: Francis W. Parker's Education Reforms
Francis W. Parker, as superintendent in Quincy, Massachusetts, popularized concepts like student participation in curriculum, kindergarten, and teacher specialization. (Janak, 2019) -
1875: Civil Rights "Enforcement" Act
The last of the major Reconstruction statutes, this law mandated equal treatment in public transportation, public accommodations, and jury service for Black Americans before being struck down in 1883. (Ellis, 2018; Thomas, 2023) -
1883: Civil Rights Cases
The Supreme Court consolidated five cases challenging the Civil Rights Act of 1875, ruling limited federal power over civil rights and narrowed 13th Amendment interpretation. Court held that the 14th Amendment only restricted state action, not private discrimination. This struck down much of the 1875 CRA and restricted Congress's ability to legislate against private racial discrimination, setting the stage for Plessy v. Ferguson. (Thomas, 2023) -
1885: Early attempts to organize professional Black baseball
Several attempts were made to organize professional African American baseball leagues, but lack of financial backing became a major obstacle. (Comeaux & Harrison, 2004) -
1887: The Hatch Act
Provided funding for agricultural research at land-grant (grab) institutions, further benefiting from the earlier land seizures but not extending these benefits to Tribal Colleges and Universities (TCUs). (McCoy et al, 2021.) -
Period: to
1890s-1920s: The Progressive Era
Characterized by widespread educational reforms, including the rise of child-centered progressivism, administrative progressivism, and social reconstructionism. John Dewey's influential work, the growth of vocational education, and the expansion of schools' roles to include extracurricular activities/community services, and racial segregation are all hallmarks of the era. (Janak, 2019) -
1890: Louisiana Separate Car Act
Louisiana passed a law mandating separate railway accommodations for Black and white passengers, leading to the Plessy v. Ferguson case. (Thomas, 2023) -
1896: Plessy v. Ferguson
Plaintiff Homer Plessy challenged an 1890 Louisiana law mandating segregated railway accommodations. However, the court's ruling codified separete-but-equal doctrine in legal discourse. Justice Brown claimed that the Fourteenth Amendment "could not have been intended to abolish distinctions based upon color" (p. 266). (Thomas, 2023, p. 266; Pittman, 2024) -
1904: University of Chicago Laboratory School
John Dewey founded the Laboratory School, pioneering whole child education and practical learning situations (learning by doing). (Janak, 2019) -
1904: Carl Brigham Creates Early Standardized Test
Eugenicist Carl Brigham creates a universal standardized test for the College Board, the precursor to the modern SAT. (Garrett, 2022) -
1904: Binet Scale Created
French psychologist Alfred Binet developed the first IQ test, called the "Binet Scale", to determine education placement (Asylum-attached boarding schools or specialized classes in typical schools) for children with cognitive disabilities. It was conceived as a practical tool for placement, "not related to any idea of hereditary or innate intelligence." (Au, 2014, p. 8) -
1905: Concern over Football Casualties
Theodore Roosevelt invites leaders of collegiate football, including representatives of Harvard, Princeton and Yale, to the White House for a discussion on reforming or abolishing the game during a season that produced 18 deaths and 149 serious injuries attributed to the sport. (NCAA, n.d.) -
1906: Archer Advocates for Controlled Athletics
Samuel Archer of Atlanta Baptist College (Morehouse) argues in Voice of the Negro that Black college athletics should remain under faculty influence to emphasize health, learning, and character over winning. (Blackman, 2016) -
1906: Formation of the IAAUS
The Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States (IAAUS), later renamed the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) formed to regulate interscholastic athletic competitions. (Janak, 2019) -
1910: IAAUS renamed to NCAA
The Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States was renamed to the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). -
1912: Formation of CIAA
The Colored Intercollegiate Athletic Association (CIAA) is formed by mid-Atlantic black colleges to regulate and improve the quality of intercollegiate athletics among its member institutions. (Blackman, 2016) -
1914: The Smith-Lever Act
Established the Cooperative Extension Service (CES) to educate rural Americans about agricultural practices and technology to help increase agricultural productivity through USDA and land-grant (grab) university partnerships. Provided additional aid to land-grant institutions, building on the benefits of seized Indigenous lands while excluding TCUs from these financial advantages. (McCoy et al, 2021.) -
1916: Carl Brigham's Dissertation on Binet's Scale
Carl Brigham writes his Ph.D. dissertation at Princeton analyzing Alfred Binet's intelligence tests, originally used to identify children with learning or cognitive disabilities Rosales & Walker, 2021; Brigham, 1916) -
1917: Army Alpha and Beta Tests Developed
Harvard educated psychologist Robert Yerkes, working with Brigham, Goddard and Terman, develops the Alpha and Beta Army tests to sort incoming soldiers and determine their "mental fitness". These tests were used to make dubious conclusions about intelligence based on race and national origin. (Au, 2014; Garrett, 2022) -
1917: Smith-Hughes Act
This act provided federal funds for vocational education in American secondary schools and teacher training in colleges. (Kosmerick, 2017; Janak, 2019) -
1919: National Intelligence Tests Created
Lewis Terman adapts army tests into National Intelligence Tests for school children. By 1920, over 400,000 copies were sold nationwide, marking the beginning of widespread standardized testing in schools. (Au, 2014 -
1920: Formation of the Negro National League (NNL)
The Negro National League, created by Rube Foster, became one of the biggest African American businesses in America. Baseball was the number one spectator sport among African Americans as the New Negro Renaissance began. (Comeaux & Harrison, 2004) -
1923: A Study of American Intelligence
Carl Brigham publishes this book arguing for the superiority of the "Nordic race" and warning against immigration's effects on American intelligence. (Brigham, 1923, p. 168) -
1925: Widespread Adoption of IQ Tests
A survey finds that 64% of cities with populations over 10,000 used intelligence tests to classify and sort elementary students, 56% for junior high, and 41% for high school students. (Au, 2014 -
1927: Gong Lum v. Rice
Martha Lum (9) was assigned to the segregated school outside of her district instead of the local white high school. The Supreme Court ruled that the school board's decision did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment's equal protection clause, and instead applied the separate-but-equal doctrine established in Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896. (Equal Justice Initiative, 2020; Janak, 2019) -
1930: Lemon Grove Board Decides to Segregate
The Lemon Grove Grammar School PTA approached the school board to request a separate school be made available to segregate the white and Mexican students due to growing unrest about the number of Mexican students in the town. The school board acquiesces and begins to make a plan for a Mexican schoolhouse. (PBS, 1985) -
1931: The Lemon Grove Incident
Following school trustees' instructions, Principal Jerome T. Green stood at the door of the Lemon Grove Grammar School and admitted everyone except the Mexican students. He announced that the Mexican would now attend lessons in a different (two room) building. “It wasn’t a school. It was an old building. Everyone called it ‘La Caballeriza'” (the barnyard) (Alvarez, 2020, para. 3) -
1931: Alvarez v. Lemon Grove
This case became the first successful school desegregation court decision in the United States, though limited to Mexican families in the community. (Janak, 2019) -
1932: Intelligence Testing in Schools
112 of 150 large city school systems in the United States had begun to use intelligence testing to place students into ability groups, extending the practice of standardized testing in education. (Au, 2014 -
1932: Black Athletes Shine at Olympics
Eddie Tolan and Ralph Metcalfe finish first and second in the 100 meter sprint at the Los Angeles Olympics. Their success prompts discussions about the role of athletics in advancing racial equality. (Blackman, 2016) -
1936: Henderson's "The Negro Athlete and Race Prejudice"
Edwin B. Henderson publishes "The Negro Athlete and Race Prejudice", arguing that black athletic achievements help increase tolerance and respect for black people by demonstrating their masculinity and capability. (Blackman, 2016) -
1936: Jesse Owens' Olympic Triumph
Jesse Owens wins four gold medals at the Berlin Olympics, challenging Nazi claims of Aryan supremacy and sparking debates about the role of black athletes in advancing racial equality. (Blackman, 2016) -
1937: CIAA Debate on Athletics
The Colored Intercollegiate Athletic Association holds a debate on the role of athletics in Black colleges, with educators arguing for maintaining focus on character development over athletic achievement. (Blackman, 2016) -
1939: Publication of "The Negro in Sports"
Edwin B. Henderson publishes "The Negro in Sports", the first book-length discussion of the social meaning of black athletes, arguing that athletic accomplishments contribute to integration and racial progress. (Blackman, 2016) -
1947: Jackie Robinson breaks MLB color barrier
Jackie Robinson became the first African American to break the perennial color barrier in Major League Baseball. This event led to the eventual demise of the Negro National League due to MLB's "talent raiding" without much compensation to NNL owners. (Comeaux & Harrison, 2004) -
1952: NCAA implements 12-point code
The NCAA implemented a 12-point code, with Principles 5 and 6 addressing academic progress and admission standards for athletes. -
1954: Nyandika Maiyoro's Commonwealth Games Performance
Kenyan runner Nyandika Maiyoro finishes fourth in the three mile at the British Empire and Commonwealth Games in Vancouver, marking an early appearance of East African runners on the international stage. (Darda, 2024) -
Period: to
1954-1983: The Five E's Period in American Education
Characterized by efforts towards Equality (desegregation, civil rights), Excellence (focus on math and science), Expansion (accommodating Baby Boomers), Expertise (growing diversity in administration), and Emancipation (from local control). Increased federal involvement, rapid educational reforms, and growing critiques of public education culminated in calls for significant interventions by the early 1980s. (Janak, 2019) -
1954: Brown v. Board of Education
The Supreme Court ruled that "separate but equal" was inherently unequal, ordering schools to desegregate with "all deliberate speed". (Janak, 2019, p.70) -
1957: Sputnik Launch
The Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik led to increased focus on science and math education in the U.S., sparking curriculum reforms. (Janak, 2019) -
1958: National Defense Education Act
Provided federal support for teaching in science, math, and foreign language in response to Sputnik. (Janak, 2019) -
1959: NCAA enforces academic progress rule
The NCAA began enforcing a rule requiring student-athletes to complete 12 credit hours per semester to be eligible for competition. -
1960: Abebe Bikila's Olympic Marathon Victory
Ethiopian Abebe Bikila wins gold in the marathon at the Rome Olympics, barefoot on cobblestones, setting a new world record. He becomes the first Olympic champion from Africa. (Darda, 2024) -
1962: Engel v. Vitale
In 1951 the Board of Regents of New York authorized an optional, non-denominational prayer at the beginning of the school day. Engles sued on behalf of his child, arguing that the law violated the First Amendment's Establishment Clause (which protects Americans from government-sponsored religion). The Supreme Court ruled that state-mandated prayers in public schools were unconstitutional. (Janak, 2019) -
1965: NCAA implements 1.6 rule
The NCAA implemented the "1.6 rule" requiring student-athletes to maintain an academic GPA of 1.6 on a 4.0 scale to be eligible for national tournaments. This demonstrates an early form of academic surveillance and control over athletes. Note - when players were overwhelmingly white, academic standards were low to nonexistent. (Comeaux, 2018, p. 34) -
1965: Elementary and Secondary Education Act
Initiated significant federal aid to public education, including funding for materials, special education, and Head Start programs. (Janak, 2019) -
1968: Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co
A housing discrimination case fortified the 13th Amendment's scope: Because congress's authority under Section 2 is broader than Section 1's basic prohibition of slavery, legislation against "badges and incidents of slavery" (the lasting effects of slavery, including racial discrimination in housing). (Thomas, 2023, p. 256; St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 1968) -
1969: Tinker v. Des Moines
Iowa teenagers Mary Beth Tinker, John Tinker, and Christopher Eckhardt who wore black armbands to school in December 1965 to protest the Vietnam War. School officials suspended the students for refusing to remove their armbands. The Supreme Court ruled that students have the right to freedom of expression in schools, as long as it doesn't disrupt the learning environment. (Janak, 2019) -
1971: Martin Kane's "An Assessment of 'Black Is Best'"
Sports Illustrated publishes Martin Kane's controversial article proposing biological theories for Black athletic success, including the "slave genes" theory, sparking debate and criticism. (Darda, 2024) -
1971: Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg
Brought by the families of ten students against Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education in the 1960s to uphold the racial integration mandated by Brown v. Board through bussing. The Supreme Court unanimously ruled that (1) school districts had a responsibility to actively integrate their schools, (2) busing was an appropriate remedy for racial imbalance, and (3) the school board was mandated to create a busing plan to desegregate. (Janak, 2019) -
1972: Title IX
Part of the Higher Education Act, Title IX mandated sex equity in educational institutions receiving federal funding. (Janak, 2019) -
1973: NCAA raises GPA requirement
The NCAA raised the minimum GPA requirement for student-athletes from 1.6 to 2.0 on a 4.0 scale. This increased academic standard further tightened surveillance and control over student-athletes' academic performance as Black student participation increases in integrated spaces. (Comeaux, 2018, Wilson, 2014) -
1975: Education for All Handicapped Children Act
Provided "free appropriate public education" for all students with disabilities. (Janak, 2019) -
1978: Nike Enters College Sports
Nike begins courting college coaches and players for sponsorship deals, marking the start of increased corporate involvement in college athletics. This move set the stage for the complex relationship between sports brands and college athletes. (Runstedtler, 2018) -
1979: Department of Education Established
President Jimmy Carter established the Department of Education as a separate cabinet-level entity.
(Janak, 2019) -
1983: A Nation At Risk Report
This report selectively presented information as an exposé to malign public schools, manufacturing a crisis that "played on White Americans’ fears about desegregation" to fuel "anti-Black sentiment" and undermine trust in public schools. States subsequently adopted test-based accountability policies, accelerating with the passage of No Child Left Behind and Race to the Top. (Giersch, 2018; Love, 2023, p. 54) -
1992: "White Men Can't Run" Article
Amby Burfoot publishes "White Men Can't Run" in Runner's World, exploring racial theories in athletic performance and using gender as an analogy for racial differences in sports. (Darda, 2024) -
1994: The Equity in Educational Land-Grant Status Act (EELGSA)
Conferred land-grant status on 29 tribal colleges without providing land endowments. It offered limited funding and competitive grants, creating an unequal system compared to the original land-grant institutions. (McCoy et al, 2021.) -
2002: No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act
The U.S. government passes the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), mandating high-stakes testing in reading and math for grades 3-8 and once in high school, with sanctions for schools not showing consistent growth. (Au, 2014 -
2003: NCAA introduces Academic Progress Rate (APR)
Under the leadership of Myles Brand, the NCAA introduced the Academic Progress Rate (APR). The APR represents a significant increase in surveillance, allowing real-time monitoring of student-athletes' academic progress. (Comeaux, 2018) -
2009: Caster Semenya v. IAAF - Sex Verification
After Caster Semenya won the 800m at the World Championships, competitor complaints prompted invasive sex verification tests. She took testosterone-lowering medication Under IAAF orders and suffered severe side effects. New gender regulations followed, disproportionately targeting Black and Brown women from the Global South--fueling debates on fairness, gender, and racism. (Darda, 2024)(Eveleth, 2024). -
"2013: Epstein's ""The Sports Gene""
David Epstein publishes "The Sports Gene", exploring genetic factors in athletic performance and challenging Malcolm Gladwell's "10,000-hour rule", becoming a New York Times bestseller. (Darda, 2024) -
2019: California passes Senate Bill 206
California passed legislation allowing student-athletes to receive compensation for their name, image, and likeness. -
2020: NCAA approves policy changes for NIL compensation
The NCAA's Board of Governors approved policy changes allowing student-athletes to receive compensation for third-party endorsements related to their name, image, and likeness. -
2023: SFFA v. Harvard College
The Supreme Court ruled that Harvard's and UNC's race-conscious admissions policies violated the Equal Protection Clause and Title VI, effectively ending affirmative action in higher education admissions. (Pittman, 2024)