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First Industrial Revolution
The First Industrial Revolution took place in 18th and early 19th century Britain, driven by technological innovations, natural resources and the accumulation of capital. It resulted in significant changes in production, labour, the economy and society, including the transition to mass production, urbanisation and the emergence of a new middle class. -
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American Revolution
The tension between the Thirteen Colonies and Britain was caused by economic and political factors, leading to armed confrontations and the signing of the United States Declaration of Independence in 1776. With the support of Spain and France, the colonies won the American Revolutionary War in 1783, leading to the establishment of the United States of America Constitution of 1787. -
The US Declaration of Independence
In 1773, the British Parliament gave the East India Company a monopoly on tea sales in the colonies, leading to the Boston Tea Party. In 1774, the colonies (except Georgia) met to write a list of grievances, armed confrontations began in 1775, and in 1776, the United States Declaration of Independence was signed after Thomas Jefferson wrote the Virginia Declaration of Rights. -
The United States of America Constitution
During the American Revolutionary War, the American colonies received support from Spain and France and won decisive victories at Saratoga and Yorktown, leading to Britain recognizing the United States of America as an independent nation in the Treaty of Versailles. The United States Constitution of 1787 established national sovereignty and the separation of powers, with legislative power held by two bodies, executive power held by a president, and judicial power held by independent judges. -
The National Assembly
In 1789, the king called for the Estates-General where the privileged groups always won due to having two votes compared to the one vote of the Third Estate, who formed the majority of the French population. When the Third Estate requested one vote per person, the king refused, leading to the formation of the National Assembly, who took the Tennis Court Oath to stay together until France had a constitution. -
The Constituent Assembly (1789-1791)
The French Revolution began with the storming of the Bastille prison in 1789, and a peasant revolt called "the Great Fear." The Constituent Assembly then introduced a series of reforms including the abolition of feudal rights, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, and France's first Constitution which established a parliamentary monarchy and census suffrage. -
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French Revolution
The French Revolution was caused by social unrest, economic crisis, and the desire of the bourgeoisie for political power. The Revolution resulted in the abolition of the monarchy, the establishment of a republic, and a period of radicalization led by the Jacobins and Robespierre. -
The Legislative Assembly (1791-1792)
The Legislative Assembly was formed in 1791 after elections, but it was a turbulent period with the nobility and clergy conspiring against the Revolution, monarchies fearing the Revolution and the people blaming Louis XVI for the French defeats, resulting in the monarch being removed by the Assembly in August 1792. -
The Convention (1792-1794)
The National Convention governed France from 1792-1794, with the Girondins and Jacobins controlling the Assembly in turn. The Girondins abolished the monarchy and tried and executed Louis XVI, while the Jacobins established a dictatorship under Robespierre and implemented the period of the Terror, during which anyone suspected of not supporting the Republic could be sentenced to death. -
The Directory and the end of the Revolution 1795-1799
After the fall of Robespierre, a moderate government called the Directory was established in France with a new constitution in 1795. The regime had to deal with various conspiracies, including a plot led by Babeuf to establish an egalitarian society, royalist revolts to restore the Borbón dynasty, and wars with the First and Second Coalition. In 1799, Napoleon carried out a coup d'état and established a Consulate, exercising power with two other consuls. -
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Napoleon
Napoleon came to power as the First Consul in 1799 and eventually declared himself emperor in 1804, implementing reforms such as a simplified civil code and the creation of the Bank of France. He also pursued an expansionist policy.But defeat and exile came in 1815.After his defeat, the Conservative Order was restored with the old monarchies in power, and the Congress of Vienna established peace and alliances like the Holy Alliance and Quadruple Alliance. -
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Nationalism
In the 19th century, the concept of nationalism emerged in Europe as people believed state borders should coincide with cultural, ethnic, and linguistic boundaries. This led to the creation of nation-states, and two types of nationalism: divisive nationalism, which called for the independence of different nations within large empires, and unifying nationalism, which called for the unification of territories into a single state. -
Revolutions of 1820
In 1820, a military uprising in Spain led to the acceptance of the Constitution of 1812 and the beginning of a liberal government. However, in 1823, the Holy Alliance invaded Spain and restored absolutism, ending the period of liberal government. The Greek Revolution also occurred during this time and resulted in the country gaining independence in 1829. -
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New Revolutionary Waves
The revolutions of 1820 and 1830 were caused by national movements and liberalism. They resulted in uprisings in various European countries, while the 1848 revolutions, which mixed liberal, nationalist, and social demands, ultimately failed but contributed to the advancement of liberalism in some countries. -
Revolutions of 1830
The Revolutions of 1830 involved the overthrow of Charles X in France and the creation of the more liberal Louis Philippe of Orleans as monarch. Belgium also gained independence from the Kingdom of the Netherlands, while uprisings in Poland and Italian states were suppressed. -
The Revolutions of 1848
The revolutions of 1848 were a series of uprisings across Europe that combined liberal, nationalist, and social demands. The movement began in France, where the monarchy was overthrown and replaced with the second French Republic, but ultimately failed to achieve lasting change across the continent. -
Unification of Italy
In the 19th century, Italy was divided into several states, some of which were under foreign control, but the Italians shared a common language and history that created a sense of unity. The Kingdom of Piedmont led the unification process, and with the help of leaders such as Cavour and Garibaldi, Italy was unified through a series of military victories and political maneuvers, ultimately becoming a kingdom in 1861. -
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Second Industrial Revolution
The Second Industrial Revolution occurred in the late 19th and early 20th centuries due to technological innovations, the exploitation of new energy sources, increased investment and capitalism, and improved communications and transport. This led to exponential economic growth, significant changes in society and the concentration of wealth in the hands of a few entrepreneurs, as well as increased global competition. -
Unification of Germany
Before the unification of Germany, it was divided into 39 states. The process of unification began with the creation of the German Confederation, the establishment of a customs union, and the offer of the crown of a unified Germany to the King of Prussia. Eventually, Prussia led the unification process through military action, resulting in the proclamation of the Second German Empire in 1871, with Chancellor Bismarck as the leader.