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Napoleon's Early Life
Napoleon was born in 1769 in Corsica, an island in the Mediterranean, only a few months after France had annexed the island. His father came from minor nobility in Italy, but the family was not rich. Napoleon was commissioned as a lieutenant in the French army. -
The Beginning Of The French Revolution
The French Revolution established a new political order and a new social order. For that reason, it is considered a turning point in
European history. The execution of King Louis XVI pushed
the revolution into a new radical and violent phase. During the radical stage of the revolution, women observed sessions of the National Convention and were not shy about making their demands. -
The Declaration Of The Rights Of Man And The Citizen
This declaration was Inspired by the English Bill of Rights of 1689 and by the American Declaration of Independence and Constitution. -
The New Constitution
The new Constitution of 1791 set up a limited monarchy. There was still a king, but a Legislative Assembly would make the laws. Not only the clergy, but also government officials and judges, would be elected. Local governments were put in charge of taxation. -
The National Convention
In September 1792, the newly elected National Convention
began meeting. The Convention had been called to draft a new
constitution, but it also served as the ruling body of France. The National Convention’s first major step on September 21 was to abolish the monarchy and establish a republic, the French Republic. -
Beginning Of War
The rulers of Austria and Prussia threatened to use force to restore Louis XVI to full power. Insulted by this threat and fearing attack, the Legislative Assembly decided to strike first, declaring war on Austria in the spring of
1792. The French fared badly in the initial fighting. A frantic search for scapegoats began. In the spring of 1792, angry citizens demonstrated to protest food shortages and defeats in the war. The French Revolution was entering a more radical, violent stage. -
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Napoleon's Military Success
In 1792 he became a captain. At age 24, in1794, the Committee of Public Safety made him a brigadier general. In 1796 he became commander of the French armies in Italy. In 1797 he returned to France as a hero. He was given command of an army in training to invade Britain. Napoleon suggested striking indirectly at Britain by taking Egypt. By 1799,the British had defeated the French naval forces supporting Napoleon’s army in Egypt. Seeing defeat, Napoleon abandoned his army and returned to Paris. -
1793 Crisis
By late spring 1793, the coalition was poised to invade. It seemed possible that the revolution would be destroyed, and the old regime reestablished. Confronted with domestic uprisings and external threats, the National Convention gave the Committee of Public Safety broad powers. -
The Adoption Of The Reign Or Terror
For roughly a year during 1793 and 1794, the Committee of Public Safety took control of the government. To defend France from domestic threats, the Committee adopted policies that became known as the Reign of Terror. Revolts begin in western France, counterrevolutionaries were executed, and anti-Catholic laws were passed. -
Rise Of The Revolutionary Army
In less than a year, the new French gov had raised a huge army. By September 1794, it had over a million soldiers. It was the largest army ever seen in Europe, and it pushed the invaders back across the Rhine. It even conquered the Austrian Netherlands. In earlier times, wars were the business of rulers who fought rivals with professional soldiers. The new French army was created by a people’s government. -
The End Of The Reign Of Terror
By the summer of 1794, the French had largely defeated their foreign foes. There was less need for the Reign of Terror, but it continued. In June 1794, the Law of 22 Prairial was passed, which gave Robespierre more power to arrest and execute enemies of the revolution. Deputies in the National Convention who feared Robespierre Evaluating the Terror decided to act, lest they be the next victims. They gathered enough votes to con- demn him, and Robespierre was guillotined on July 28, 1794. -
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Napoleon's Time As Consul And Emperor
Napoleon was called first consul, a title borrowed from ancient Rome. He appointed officials, controlled the army, conducted foreign affairs, and influenced the legislature. In 1802 Napoleon was made consul for life. Two years later, he crowned himself Emperor Napoleon I. He remained emperor until 1814. Within his empire, he sought to spread some principles of the French
Revolution, including legal equality, religious toleration, and economic freedom. Napoleon tried to destroy the old order. -
Agreement With The Church
In 1801 Napoleon came to an agreement with the pope, which recognized Catholicism as the religion of a majority of the French people. In return, the pope would not ask for the return of the church lands seized in the revolution. -
Civil Code
Seven law codes were created, but the most important was the Civil Code, or Napoleonic Code, introduced in 1804. It preserved many of the principles that the revolutionaries had fought for: equality of all citizens before the law; the right of the individual to choose a profession; religious toleration; and the abolition of serfdom and all feudal obligations. For women and children, the Civil Code
was a step back. Women were now “less equal than men.” -
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Napoleon's New Bureaucracy
Napoleon is also well known because he created a strong, centralized administration. He focused on developing a bureaucracy of capable officials. Public officials and military officers alike were promoted based on their ability. Opening careers to men of talent was a reform that the middle class had clamored for before the revolution. Napoleon also created a new aristocracy based on meritorious service to the nation. Between 1808 and 1814, Napoleon created about 3,200 nobles. -
Napoleon's Downfall
Napoleon was never able to conquer Great Britain because of its sea power, which made it almost invulnerable. Napoleon marched his armies through the Germanies, Spain, Italy, and Poland,
arousing new ideas of nationalism in two ways. First, the conquered peoples became united in their hatred of the invaders. Second, the conquered peoples saw the power and strength of national feeling. Napoleon’s downfall began in 1812 when he decided to invade Russia. -
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Disaster In Russia
The Russians had refused to remain in the Continental System, leaving Napoleon with little choice but to invade. He also knew that if he did not punish the Russians for ignoring the Continental System, other nations would follow suit. In June 1812, a Grand Army entered Russia. The Russians retreated. When the Russians fought at Borodino, Napoleon’s forces won an indecisive victory, which cost many lives. The “Great Retreat” had Thousands of soldiers starved and froze along the way. -
The Final Defeat
Restless in exile, he left the island of Elba and slipped back into France. The new king sent troops to capture Napoleon, who opened his coat and addressed them. No one fired a shot. At Waterloo in Belgium on June 18, 1815, Napoleon met a combined British and Prussian army under the Duke of Wellington and suffered a bloody defeat. This time, the victorious allies exiled him to St. Helena, a small island in the south Atlantic. Napoleon remained in exile until his death in 1821.
