-
Galileo’s Sidereus Nuncius
In the book Galileo describes his discoveries of four moons revolving around the planet Jupiter. These discoveries support the Copernican heliocentric theory, which proposed that Earth and the other planets revolve around the Sun. (For centuries astronomy had been based on Ptolemy’s theory that Earth was the center of the universe and motionless.) The book is one of the scientific texts considered foundational to the Enlightenment. -
Isaac Newton
Publishes his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy). In the landmark work he sets forth his three basic laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation. -
John Locke
In this work he defends a doctrine of natural rights and a conception of political authority as limited and conditional on the ruler’s fulfillment of his obligation to serve the public good. A classic formulation of the principles of political liberalism, this work will later influence the American and French revolutions. -
John Toland
In this work he seeks to show that “there is nothing in the Gospels contrary to reason, nor above it.” Any doctrine that is really above reason, he argues, would be meaningless to humans. -
Montesquieu
The book gives a brilliant satirical portrait of French and, particularly, Parisian civilization, supposedly seen through the eyes of two Persian travelers. The work mocks the reign of Louis XIV, which had recently ended; pokes fun at all social classes; and discusses the theories of Thomas Hobbes relating to the state of nature. It also satirizes Roman Catholic doctrine and is infused throughout with a new spirit of vigorous, disrespectful, and iconoclastic criticism. -
Voltaire
Publishes Lettres philosophiques, in which he speaks out against established religious and political systems. The work creates an uproar, and he is forced to flee Paris. -
Carolus Linnaeus
Presents a classification of three kingdoms of nature: stones, plants, and animals. Each kingdom is subdivided into classes, orders, genera, species, and varieties. This system is still used in biology, though it has been revised over the years. -
Encyclopédie and philosophes
Is one of the principal works of the Enlightenment. Its compilation of available human knowledge reflects an optimism toward scientific and human progress. The encyclopedia will eventually total 35 volumes. -
Candide
Voltaire publishes his best-known work, the satirical novel Candide, an undisputed masterpiece of the 18th century. -
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
In his work Rousseau challenges the traditional order of society based on binding laws handed down by rulers or the church. He argues instead that laws are binding only if the general will of the people supports them within a type of social contract. -
Declaration of Independence
The document announces the separation of 13 North American British colonies from Great Britain. Thomas Jefferson was largely responsible for the writing of the document. It begins with a declaration of individual rights and then lists the alleged acts of tyranny by George III that form the colonies’ justification for seeking independence.