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Fredrick William III of Prussia
At the advice of his chief ministers, King Fredrick William III reformed many of Prussia's internal systems after Napoleon's victory over Prussia. He abolished serfdom, constructed a national army, and expanded education. However, he later fell in tract with Metternich's Congress of Europe and became an absolutist reactionary. -
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Tsar Alexander I
An Enlightenment-raised monarch, Alexander I was initially bending to reform within Russia. Under his early reign, he boosted the freedoms of the press and political prisoners, and he advocated for educational reform. However, following the Napoleonic Wars, Alexander I became more autocratic and increased governmental censorship. -
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Louis XVIII
After originally proclaiming several political rights to French citizens, Louis XVIII eventually dissolves the French parliament. By the time he dies, leaving the throne to his brother, Charles X, Louis XVIII has proven himself unable to heal the wounds of the French Revolution. -
German Confederation established
In 1815, the Congress of Vienna recognized 38 sovereign German states as the German Confederation. This organization had no executive power and fulfilled the conservative hopes of Metternich by repressing liberalism. -
Karlsbad Decrees
Following a revolutionary-inspired assassination, Metternich had the diet of the German Confederation create the Karlsbad Decrees. These decrees suppressed the press, the university's freedoms, and political thought across the Confederation. These decrees prevented any upcoming revolution. -
Revolts in southern Italy and Sardinia crushed
Nationalistic secret societies known as the Carbonari ("charcoal burners") organize a revolution in 1820 in southern Italy and Sardinia. However, the conservative Italian rulers call for reinforcements from the Austrian army, who decisively defeat the rebels. -
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Charles X
Recognized for his failure to resecure Bourbon control over France, King Charles X passed numerous reactionary laws, spurring massive protest. These tensions rose until the July Revolution of 1830, in which Charles had to flee to Britain. -
Decembrist Revolt
In December 1825, military leaders of Russia revolted against the accession of Nicholas I to the Russian crown. Nicholas mercilessly broke this revolution and executed its organizers. -
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Tsar Nicholas I
After his near overthrow from the Decembrist Revolt, Nicolas I was determined to prevent any further dissent in Russia. He formed a political police which silenced political opposition and censored controversial viewpoints. Surveillance was conducted on much of the Russian population under his rule. -
July Revolution
On July 26th, Charles X enacted edicts which imposed limitations on press freedom, dissolved the legislature, and reduced the electorate. This provoked the July Revolution, in which moderate liberals set up a provincial government and invited Louis-Philipe to become the new monarch. Charles X had to flee to Britain in response, but the new government only guaranteed the rich to vote. -
Polish uprising
An unsuccessful attempt of revolt, the Poles rose up from under the banner of nationalism in 1830 against the Russians. However, they failed to secure any allies and the Russian army quickly suppressed the movement. -
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Louis-Philippe
The Duke of Orléans and Charles X's cousin, Louis-Philippe was called on by the French government to become its new king. However, the widespread nature of bribery and bureaucratic inefficiency secures his own replacement by the Second French Republic. -
Reform Act
The Reform Act of 1832 further expanded the electorate for the House of Commons in the United Kingdom. This law was also an attempt to harmonize relations between the middle and high classes of the state. -
Poor Law
The Poor Law was passed in 1834 in the United Kingdom. It enforced to removal of support for the poor outside of their employment, a move to eliminate pauperism. -
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Emperor Ferdinand
Austrian Emperor who at first made concessions to the revolutionaries of 1848. Ferdinand made sure to exploit the division between the varying political ideologies of the revolutionaries and subsequently and decisively defeated them on battlefield, securing the unity of his empire. -
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Fredrick William IV of Prussia
Facing revolution, Fredrick William IV agreed to concessions to the revolutionaries within his domain, offering the removal of censorship, the establishment of a new constitution, and progress towards a united Germany. Unfortunately, when the Frankfurt Assembly offered Fredrick William the crown as "emperor of the Germans", he declined, leading to the disbandment of revolutionary efforts in Germany. -
Revolt in Austrian Empire; Metternich dismissed
Protests across the Austrian Empire, from Buda, Prague, to Vienna, resulting in the dismissal of Metternich. Being the face of the continental status quo, removing Metternich hoped to calm the demonstrators. -
Austrian forces under General Windischgrätz crush Czech rebels
Upon arriving within Czech territory, Windischgrzätz destroys the rebel insurgency against the Hapsburg lineage. The Czechs are placed under martial law and therefore their nationalistic ambitions are eliminated. -
Viennese rebels crushed
When a Viennese mob kills an Austrian minister, Windischgrätz retaliates by devastating the rebels stationed in Vienna. Afterward, Windischgrätz reestablishes Imperial command over Vienna -
Revolutions in Italy
Giuseppe Mazzini, a devoted Italian nationalist, provoked an uprising in support of a unified Italian nation. Throughout, the region, leaders granted their people constitutions and states controlled by Austria attempted independence. However, reactionary forces repressed rebellions in Lombardy and Venetia. Only Piedmont maintained its liberal progressions. -
Abdication of Louis-Philippe; formation of provisional government
Corruption was commonplace during Louis-Philippe's rule, and radical leftists prompted the abdication of the king from the throne. A provisional government was established with moderate, radical, and socialist influences. -
Revolution in Germany
Revolutionary protests call for a liberal political body to King Fredrick William IV of Prussia. An all-parliament body convened in Frankfurt with the goal of creating a nation-based, liberal constitution. However, Fredrick William disbands the Frankfurt Assembly before the plans are completed, leaving Germany as a divided state. -
Election of Louis Napoleon as French president
Louis Napoleon, nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, became the first president of the French Second Republic, defeating four republican opponents. However, similar to his uncle, he converted France into an empire within years, titling himself as Napoleon III. -
Establishment of the Second Republic
A new constitution proclaiming the second republic in France was ratified in 1848. The new government was established with a one-house legislature and universal male suffrage. The violence preceding this change was massive, featuring numerous protest from workers, resulting in thousands of deaths. -
Austrians reestablish control in Lombardy and Venetia
King Charles Albert is defeated by the Austrians in battle as he invaded Lombardy. In 1849, the Austrian Empire reclaims full control over Lombardy and Venetia.
