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Jan 1, 813
The Primer
The Primer was a reading book that included many religious selections that children were to memorize. “It was called a primer not because it was the first book of reading instruction, but because it was primary or fundamental in containing the 'minimum essentials' deemed necessary for one’s spiritual existence” (Smith, 2002, p.7). The reading materials of this time period lent themselves toward the instruction that focused on learning through memorization. -
Jan 1, 1400
The ABC
The ABC was “a school book that served the demands of reading instruction as well as religion” (Smith, 2002, p.7). Through The ABC religion and reading instruction are beginning to be taught simultaneously. -
Reading materials used throughout the 16th & 17th centuries
During this time period the purpose and goals of reading materials were strictly religious. Children were to learn to read, write, and spell through reading scripture. “The Primer, the Psalter, the Bible are to be used in teaching spelling and reading. Writing and casting accounts are to be taught. The Lord’s Prayer, the Creed, the Ten Commandments and the Catechism are to be known by all” (Smith, 2002, p. 12). -
The New England Psalter
During this time period Psalters were frequently used for reading instruction. The New England Psalter was “Improved by a variety of lessons in spelling, accented and divided according to rule. Likewise, rules for reading and particularly of the emphasis belonging to some special word or words in a sentence” (Smith, 2002, p. 16). -
The transformation of spellers during the last quarter of the 18th century
“These spellers…foreshadowed two changes that gradually and rather generally took place during the last quarter of the 18th century. “These changes were the transition from strictly religious to moralistic content and the inclusion of other secular materials such as stories, riddles, and dialogues” (Smith, 2002, p. 27). -
The change of reading goals in America 1776 - 1840
During the period of nationalistic-moralistic emphasis in reading instruction the educational goals, reading instruction, and reading materials began to change in America. This shift in the instruction goals also changed the reading materials that were used for instruction. Many spellers were produced during this period, which included content focused on the patriotism of our new country. -
Graded Schools
The period of reading emphasis was the first time a reading series appeared in which a book was specifically written for each of the different school grades. “It was during this period, of course, that our graded school was evolving…” (Smith, 2002, p. 78). -
The Period of Reading Emphasis
The content in the readers changed once again, during the period of reading emphasis. “The readers contained less information about patriotic events and moral selections. With the new emphasis upon reading as means of obtaining information, we find the upper grade readers increasingly given to a wider range of informational subjects in science, history, art, philosophy, economics, politics” (Smith, 2002, p. 78). -
The Period of Emphasis on Reading
In the early 1880’s a new reading movement began in America, the period of emphasis on reading. The focus moved from patriotism to creating an interest in reading. “This is the period in which professional books in reading first came into prominence” (Smith, 2002, p. 115) -
Additional materials included in basic readers
“It was during this period that the reading of materials other than those included in the basic reader came to be a popular practice. This enrichment of the reading course was undoubtedly an outgrowth of the aim of developing an interest in literature, particularly as applied to the reading books each of which contained a single classic” (Smith, 2002, p. 118). -
The shift from oral reading to silent reading
During the dramatic period, the emphasis on reading instruction shifted from oral reading to silent reading. During this time period many professional books were published on silent reading. In addition, “With the advent of instruments of measurement, it was possible for the first time to obtain scientific information about the effectiveness of reading methods and materials, and of administrative arrangements for teaching reading in the classroom” (Smith, 2002, p. 148). -
The Silent Reading Movement lasted from 1910 - 1924
As the silent reading movement grew in popularity supplemental reading began being widely used. “These readers usually embodied factual materials and various types of exercises in which the child made some response to his silent reading” (Smith, 2002, p. 161). The new series of readers differed significantly because for the most part they consisted of factual and informational selections. The new readers also contained activities that the sole purpose was to check the child’s comprehension. -
Teachers' Manuals
“Emphasis on the new silent reading procedures was responsible for bringing teachers’ manuals into general use during this period. Every author of new reading textbooks furnished generous instructions for the use of his material” (Smith, 2002, p. 159). These teaching instructions also had an effect on authors of the preceding period who now produced manuals emphasizing silent reading and suggesting procedures that could be used with their readers. -
The period of Intensive Research and Application extended from 1925 – 1935
The period of Intensive Research and Application extended from 1925 – 1935. “During this period, both materials and methods used in connection with textbook teaching of reading may be characterized as expressing broader goals than heretofore had been expressed at any time passed” (Smith, 2002, p. 187). Teacher manuals gave teachers a lot of choice in their lessons by providing several supplemental activities (Smith, 2002, p. 194). -
Supplemental materials during the Period of Intensive Research and Application (1925 - 1935)
During this period there was an abundance of supplemental materials that aided teachers in their reading instruction. There were many realistic stories and informational books; “however, very little was being done in the way of reviving the old folktales or stories from literature that were popular in preceding periods” (Smith, 2002, p. 197). -
The preprimer during the period of Intensive Research and Application (1925 - 1935)
“The preprimer was an innovation of this period” (Smith, 2002, p. 201). The preprimer was written as a way to solve the problem of providing interesting stories without a large number of new words. Some preprimers were planned as preparation use for a series of readers and some only for one reader. -
The basal readers during the period of Intensive Research and Application (1925 - 1935)
During this period, there was a significant change with the basal series. Almost every basal series provided a workpad, “consisting of directions and pictures for silent reading exercise that children might carry out by themselves during seatwork periods” (Smith, 2002, p. 199). -
Teacher manuals during the period of Intensive Research and Application (1925 - 1935)
During this period, the subject matter in readers varied greatly. “An outstanding characteristic of the methods described in the teachers’ manuals of this period was the general tendency to teach reading in connection with various activities and interests throughout the school day and not to confine it to periods devoted solely to reading” (Smith, 2002, p. 215). -
The period of International Conflict (1935-1950
This time frame is known as the period of International Conflict. Due to the war efforts one of the most noticeable effects of this period was the lack of production of research and instructional materials. However, several professional books on reading were still published during this period. “Teachers’ manuals gave suggestions to use in teaching children to read specific pages in their readers” (Smith, 2002, p. 257). -
The period of Expanding Knowledge and Technological Revolution
During the period of expanding knowledge and technological revolution there was a concern for national preservation which caused a change in reading materials (ex. trade books and magazines). During this period teaching reading in content fields became more important. (Smith, 2002, p. 289). This period was oddly productive in the production of new professional books about teaching reading. “A new frontier opened with the publication of books for college and adult levels” (Smith, 2002, p 299). -
The First Grade Studies
“Chall’s book and the First Grade Studies had an enormous impact on beginning reading instruction and indirectly on reading pedagogy more generally” (Smith, 2002, p. 423). The First Grade Studies seemed to suggest that “any alternative, when compared to the business-as-usual basals, elicited equal or greater performance on the part of the first grader” (Smith, 2002, p. 423). Chall had many other recommendations that affect reading research, reading materials, and reading instruction. -
Skills Management Systems - during the late 1960's
During the mastery learning movement, criterion referenced tests and other tests were produced. “Publishers of basal programs and some niche publishers began to create and implement what came to be called skills management systems.” (Smith, 2002, p. 427). During this time period, skills management systems became the reading program, which involved students taking many mastery tests, completing worksheets on non-master content, and then retaking the tests until students had mastered the content. -
The basal readers of the 1970s
Following the publication of the First-Grade Studies, the basal readers that were published were very different (Smith, 2002, p. 425). These basal readers included a large focus on phonetics. In addition, there was a change in content to include more adaptations of children’s literacy. -
A change in the teacher manuals occured during the 1970s
Another large change in the basal readers of this period was that technology advanced in such a way that reduced copies of students text could be placed on the teacher’s guide. “This was hailed as a major advance in the utility of manuals, because teachers did not have to turn back and forth from student text to the teacher’s section in order to guide the reading of the story” (Smith, 2002, p. 428). This advancement in basal readers is something that is still seen in the readers used today. -
The Psycholinguistic Perspective
The psycholinguistic perspective “valued literary experiences that focused on meaning making” (Smith, 2002, p. 434). Classroom activities, worksheets and games focused on specific skills. The psycholinguistic perspective helped emphasize the importance of relying on texts for “beginning readers in which authors relied on natural language patterns, thus making it possible for emerging readers to use their knowledge of language to predict words and meanings” (Smith, 2002, 434). -
Increased focus on student's comprehension during the 1970s and 1980s.
In the late 1970's and through the 1980’s there was a large focus on reading comprehension. During this period many instructional strategies and routines focused on monitoring student’s comprehension. Some of these instructional strategies are still seen today in our classrooms, such as "K-W-L graphic organizers and questioning the author. These strategies and materials guided reading instruction to focus more on the reader's comprehension” (Smith, 2002, p. 444). -
The change in basal readers during the 1990s
Basal readers changed greatly during 1990's. One significant change was that basal readers now included "'integrated language arts' and 'integrated curriculum'" strands. Smith (2002) states, "These changes can, I believe, be traced to the prominent position of whole language as a curricular force during this period" (p. 450). This idea of integrated reading curriculum is still a focus in many schools and implemented in many reading classrooms. -
The hornbook
“The hornbook was undoubtedly the next link in the chain of textbook developments” (Smith, 2002, p. 5). Hornbooks were made of a variety of materials, such as: wood, iron, pewter, ivory, silver, and gingerbread. The letters of the alphabet were baked onto the material. Children were expected to use the hornbooks to memorize the entire alphabet.