Pre-Modern East Asian History

Bronze Age in China

Period: 2000 BCE to 1 CE

Generally encompasses Shang and Zhou dynasties - period of immense political and cultural developments, beginnings of writing, historical thought, ritual practices; Sanxingdui culture was southern Shang contemporary, equally adept at bronzeworking

Shang Dynasty

Period: 1600 BCE to 1046 BCE

Earliest historically attested dynasty, noted for massive tomb complexes, human sacrifice, ritual use of elaborately-decorated bronze, development of writing through oracle bones

Anyang is Shang Capital

1400 BCE

Shang capital city, either Yinxu or Anyang, is biggest in the world - 100,000 people. City's workshops had hierarchical network of control, large palace was set apart from city centre, stratified elites existed

Zhou Dynasty

Period: 1046 BCE to 256 BCE

Longest Chinese dynasty, characterised by vast amounts of written records, Mandate of Heaven as historical legitimacy and bureaucracy headed by non-imperial noble families chosen for merit and skill. Admin tasks increasingly delegated to experts, imperial organisation of 6 Ministries established, economic and military reforms to emphasis efficiency

Western Zhou Dynasty

Period: 1046 BCE to 771 BCE

Expansion of dynastic power through Huanghe river settlements, full control of which was never achieved. Admin power transferred to skilled and educated nobles - basis for bureaucracy. Mandate of Heaven marked transition away from Shang ancestor worship, more abstract concept of cosmos; Established hierarchy

End of Neolithic Period in China

1000 BCE

Hierarchy, expansion and sophistication led to loose network of princely city-states around Huanghe Basin; jadeworking, temples, palaces, workshops and tombs appear

Zhou Bureaucracy

850 BCE

Emperor (called king) was first, followed by Council of Elders, then 6 Ministries and 6 Armies. Armies commanded by king, each had 12,500 men. Territory had 12,500 districts with smaller towns, wards and villages in groups of 5. Feudal lords ruled districts on behalf of king, power ultimately concentrated in them

Eastern Zhou

Period: 770 BCE to 256 BCE

Second half of Zhou dynasty, sparked by imperial capital's move to Luoyang. Characterised by weakening of imperial rule, autonomous states and kingdoms seizing more power. 'Zhou' remained ritual centre of general area, but lacked real authority. Political breakdown and constant infighting led to anxiety over governance, ideology and values

Chunqiu Period

Period: 770 BCE to 476 BCE

First half of Eastern Zhou dynasty, when important philosophical writings were being postulated. Reflection on "Golden Age" of Western Zhou began, theme to be carried through all of Chinese history. Lack of central institutions meant advisors, teachers, philosophers travelled from state to state for patronage. Confucius' Chunqiu of Lu (Spring and Autumn Annals) written during this time

Warring States Period

Period: 475 BCE to 221 BCE

Latter half of Eastern Zhou, marked by complete breakdown of ritual legitimacy and chaos amongst autonomous states; military innovations included professional armies, iron/steel weapons - greater casualties and chaos, conscription of peasants into wars, state need for military protection. Breakdown of martial ritual prompted the Art of War

Chunqiu of Lu (Spring and Autumn Annals) Compiled

470 BCE

Records the reigns of 12 Dukes of Lu, from 722-481 beccb; possibly draws on earlier sources, reflects historiographical traditions at state and local levels, stylistic decisions in place from early on - prescriptive judgments against leaders shown through inclusion/omission of dates, titles, etc. Factual accuracy + critical analysis in one document, later inspired rest of Chinese historiography

Kofun Period

Period: 300 BCE to 900

Era of Japanese history characterised by tumulus mound-building, class division, political and social stratification, astrological symbolism borrowed from China; Kofun burial styles show similarities to cultures of Korea, imply cultural network

Mengzi Book Written

280 BCE

Philosopher Mengzi writes a book positing that ritual produces/reflects order; state order is derived from state ritual and family order from family ritual. Everything based on state, which is based on family, family based on self. Also believed people were inherently good, will naturally follow rituals. Daxue text goes a bit deeper, describes proper intentions and heart as necessary for family/cosmic order; perfect inside will create perfect outside

Qin Unifies China

259 BCE

Powerful Qin kingdom defeats rival Chu, declares new dynasty. Previous rulers had all declared themselves king as regional hegemony broke down; Qin backed up claim with military might

Qin Dynasty

Period: 221 BCE to 206 BCE

First centralised rule of Huanghe Valley in centuries; unified script and bureaucracy, standardised weights and measures, made regional administrators non-hereditary, non-familial bureaucrats. Local units called commandries, power unhappily divided between imperial government and aristocratic families

Han Dynasty

Period: 206 BCE to 220

Culturally and politically significant period for China, drawing on standardisations and institutions of Qin; mathematical, economic, navigational advances developed. Qin commandries given to local aristocrats, entrenching power divide. Confucianism becomes state ideology, subject of cult, cosmology systemised, officials ranked into 3 grades with 3 subgrades

Zhouli Written

200 BCE

The Zhouli or Rites of Zhou, details and recreates the rituals of the declining dynasty; anxiety as efficiency and military strength become more important, 300 general and 3000 personal rites recorded. Sets precedent for glorification of Zhou as ideal ritual and governmental era

Qin Bureaucracy

190 BCE

Emperor (1st to claim title) as head, followed by Defender, Counselor and Censor-in-chief; Territory grouped into 216 Commandries, ruled by governors; feudal domains abolished, aristocratic power curtailed, 1 month of military service a year mandatory for all over aged 33, plus 2 years at local garrison

Sima Qian

Period: 145 BCE to 90 BCE

Grand Historian of the Han Dynasty and son of historian Sima Tan, he carried on his father's project of writing a comprehensive history of China and eventually published the Shiji, which covers 2500 years and is the first book of its kind

Liji Written

100 BCE

Book of Rites, Liji,states ritual establishes social order, provides emotion balance, responds to cosmological structures and appeases ghosts through sacrifice. Liji is 1st systematic framework for rituals, creates new place for them in world of militancy and efficiency; ritual exemplifies ideal state of world, enacted pretension

Shiji Finished

94 BCE

The Shiji, or Records of the Grand Historian, was China's first comprehensive historiography. Sections include Basic Annals (imperial history), Tables (chronology of pre-Han states), Treatises (aspects of governance), Hereditary Houses and Biographies/Narratives, the longest section (stories like cultural touchstone Han Xin) The Shiji established the precedent of writing based on factual evidence,state-sponsored historiographies and a Confucian analysis of events/actions

Civil Service Exams Emerge

2 BCE

Eventually become one of the strongest and longest-lasting institutions in China; recruit bureaucrats and powerful civil servants, placate or punish aristocratic families, give prestige to refinement and education, standardise learning and increase social mobility

Pensions Established

1 CE

Tradition emerges from 1 cade, as sign of bureaucratic institutions' strength and sophistication

Chinese Outpost in Korea

Period: 1 CE to 313

Outpost established in Lelang, held for 300 years, not a sign of Chinese colonisation or anything

Wujing Boshi Compiled

136

Wujing Boshi, the 5 Classics, written down in process that syncretised Confucianism with existing governing ideologies; contents were Book of Changes (Yi), Documents (Shu), Songs (Shi), Rituals (Li) and Chunqiu; Shu speculated on Golden Age of Zhou propriety with imaginary speeches, etc. Li covers meaning and practice of decorum, Chunqiu is boring and factual, Shi has ideas of proper conduct for leaders

Han Bureaucracy

150

Emperor was head, followed by 3 Dukes and eunuch-run Imperial Secretariat; feudal fiefs re-established with aristocratic leaders; main power struggle was between eunuchs and aristocrats

Han Dynasty Fragments

184

Han territory becomes Wei, Shu and Wu states due to increasing power of aristocratic landholdings

Malaise of Later Han

Period: 184 to 220

Wei, Shu and Wu states sparked period of intense fighting, cultural response was esoteric escapism through Daoist alchemy, asceticism, hermit lifestyles as well as Buddhism. Xuanxue was prominent philosopher and advocate of all this

Three Kingdoms Period

Period: 313 to 668

Koguryo, Baekjae and Silla fight for control of the Korean peninsula; Baekjae traded iron with Japan, as did Gaya Buddhism arrived in Koguryo in 372 and in Baekjae shortly after; Silla adopts Buddhism as state religion in 535, Confucian influence in governance from 6th century. Baekjae pursues diplomatic relations with China as it loses territory to Koguryo and Silla; by 668 Silla controls the peninsula

Baekjae Sacks Koguryo Capital

371

Baekjae's attack on the Koguryo capital prompts it to form a closer relationship with Qin-era China; in the meantime, Baekjae and Gaya are benefitting from cultural and economic trade with Japan. By the 5th century, Baekjae is courting the Northern Wei dynasty in China as source of military aid

Taehak Confucian School Built

372

Confucian school built in Koguryo, showing the influence Chinese ideas were beginning to have on the Korean peninsula; school established around the same time as Buddhism arrived in Koguryo - both were used to legitimise and shore up ruling classes

Buddhism Becomes State Religion in Japan

538

Asuka Period

Period: 538 to 710

Important constitutional developments take place, including centralisation of government and arrival of Buddhism

Kaya Destroyed by Silla

562

Japan's closest cultural and economic ally on the Korean peninsula was cut off due to the invasion, forcing Japan to turn to Baekjae for economic and cultural companionship

Sui Dynasty

Period: 589 to 618

Two-emperor dynasty that regrouped power after decline of Han; built Grand Canal from Hangzhou to Beijing to connect important cities and help tribute/trade, fell due to failed conquest of Korea, terrible last emperor

Sui Bureaucracy

590

Emperor is head, and underneath fall the 9 Courts, 4 Directorates, 5 Departments and 3 Surveillance Agencies; 6 Ministries now part of 5 Depts. Commandries restored as bureaucratic units, imperial exams established to reduce bureaucratic power,

Asuka-dera Temple Built

593

Temple's construction reveals that, despite somewhat rocky start, Buddhism is now well-established in Japan

Shotoku Taishi Writes Constitution

604

Shotoku Taishi writes 17 article constitution setting a code of conduct for governance, instilling Buddhist and Confucian ideology in the imperial government; Buddhist ideals clearly tied to government

Tang Dynasty

Period: 618 to 907

First true "Empire" in Chinese history, expands far westward + claims Central Asian oasis cities; trade connections reach all the way to Rome. Capital Chang'an has 1 mil residents, foreign influences welcome + fashionable. Exam system tiered from provincial to federal, centered on Wujing (5 Classics), high art + classical language. Decline came after An Lushan Rebellion in 8th century; overall, immense flowering of art and culture, especially literature

Tang Code

624

Earliest full surviving Chinese legal code, has 500+ articles covering trespassing, official errors and punishments; hierarchical structure metes out different punishments for different relationships between people involved in crime

Taika Reforms Begin

645

Soga clan overthrown, reforms sparked that brought Fujiwara clan to power, styles emperor along Chinese lines, political and fiscal reforms promulgated which led to the ritsuryo state

Ritsuryo Legal Codes Written

662

Ritsuryo, legal codes that describe governance and law along Chinese lines, mark a shift in constitutional organisation; part of broader Chinese-style Taika reforms; land nearly nationalised in system like equal fields, conscription of men for military. Reforms designed to unify country, reduce factionalism

Ritsuryo State

Period: 662 to 794

The imperial court tried to implement rule of law based on the Chinese-inspired ritsuryo codes, which sought to centralise authority in the emperor, legitimise rule through state-sponsored Buddhism and Confucian governing principles and protect the state through adherence to rituals of shared cosmology

Unified Silla Rule

Period: 668 to 901

Silla defeats Baekjae and Koguryo by siding with Tang China, integrates elites into holy bones system as true bonk rank; expanded local government and had 5 capitals, creates civil exams and Confucian Academy, diplomatic ties with Tang. Staunch inequality created by bone rank system leads to Confucian institutions, wealth, being available only for elites; their concentration of power causes Silla to fragment by 901

Taiho Statutory Law

702

Emerges in 702

Capital Moved to Nara

710

Nara, also called Heijo-kyo, is the first permanent capital of Japan; sinification of government skyrockets, Buddhism widely distributed to populace, imperial rituals codified and literature gained prominence

Nara Period

Period: 710 to 794

Capital exists at Nara/Heijo-kyo, ritsuryo state has power, cosmology, language and government organised along Chinese model; Japan asserts self as part of wider Chinese-influenced network. State gradually loses power, becomes ritually ossified

Kojiki Written

712

Nihon Shoki Written

720

Tang Bureaucracy

725

Emperor as head, then Grand Councillors; Academics, Chancellory, Dept. of State Affairs, Secretariat and Censorate underneath them. 9 Courts, 6 Ministries and 5 Depts part of Dept. of State. Commandries replaced by prefectures. Top level roles bled into each other frequently, control of paper and academics very important

Sutra of Golden Light Distributed to All Provinces

741

Imperial declaration that Sutra of Golden Light be kept in every household and rituals conducted demonstrated centralisation of Japanese Buddhism, use of religion to unify people and strengthen state; sutra associated with protecting states from misfortune

Kaifuso Compiled

751

Kaifuso, a collection of poems written in Chinese style, revealed a growing Chinese-like literati class in Japan, borrowing an appreciation for introspection, leisure, philosophy, art, writing and poetry from their Chinese counterparts. Japan's entry to stage of East Asian fine literature

Manyoshu Written

759

In response to Chinese-influenced Kaifuso, the Manyoshu was a collection of poems and songs about Japanese people, themes and experiences in a much more distinct Japanese style; however, use of obscure and complicated characters made writing style fall out of favour within a few decades

Japanese Capital is Nagaoka

Period: 784 to 794

Capital is moved to Nagaoka,but remained there for only 10 years due to dissatisfying feng shui of location.

Korean Civil Service Exams Started

788

Civil service exams were implemented in a bid to copy Chinese governing styles, but candidates were only taken from higher aristocratic families and no social mobility was possible; never became a very important social institution, highly meritocratic or effective

Heian Period

Period: 794 to 1185

Kenmon System

Period: 794 to 1192

Political system that took hold after decline of ritsuryo; imperial house wasn't supreme, largely ignored in favour of power network spread among kuge (aristocrats), buke (warriors) and monasteries. Monasteries like Kofukuji and Enryakuji gathered large tracts of land and peasant armies called sohei, became like own feudal estates

Zoku Nihongi Compiled

797

2nd of Rikkokushi, 6 Histories of Japan. Tells of events from 697 to 741 in 40 scrolls, written after court's move to Heian

Nihon Koki Compiled

840

3rd of Rikkokushi texts, tells of history from 792 to 833; 10 of 40 scrolls remain in current day. Remarkable for continuity from preceding documents; despite political chaos, imperial historiographies are comprehensive

Zoku Nihon Koki Compiled

869

4th of Rikkokushi texts, documents history from 833 to 850. Departs from first 3 Rikkokushi historiographies by recording things in greater detail; only 20 scrolls

Nihon Montoku Tenno Jitsuroku Compiled

879

5th Rikkokushi document, focuses on period from 850 to 859, presumably in great details. Continues overall trend of historical periods covered by texts decreasing, analysis/detail of events increasing

Nihon Sandai Jitsuroku Compiled

901

Last Rikkokushi document, covers history from 858 to 887 in a remarkable 50 scrolls. Publication occured in 1st year of Engi reign. All together, the Rikkokushi documents established a precedent for Japanese imperial historiography similar to Chinese counterpart, where detailed record of events and ritual meanings was used to guide proper conduct of successive rulers, keep cosmos in order through proper action. Rikkokushi documents administrative, very boring

Koryo Dynasty

Period: 918 to 1392

Claims power vacuum from Silla, founder is King T'aejo; centralises power through Slave Review Act (frees aristocrats' slaves), more meritocratic civil exams, aristocratic purges. Modeled on Tang, openly supports Confucianism. Early period establishes institutions, middle (Choson) period sees them weakened by Jin invaders, later Koryo period by Mongols

Engi Shiki Compiled

927

Historical book specially dedicated to recording ceremonies at court. Purpose of recording rituals is to prescribe proper execution for them, and therein shape ritual appropriateness. Ties to court's role as guarantors of cosmic order, even as aristocratic families, etc. wield the actual political power in Japan

Song Dynasty

Period: 960 to 1279

Unifies China after Five Dynasties period (end of Tang rule), administered as North and South: Northern capital is Kaifeng, Southern is Hangzhou, thoughorthern admin weakened by nomadic incursions. Exam system and social mobility strengthened, Neoconfucian philosophical revival happens, gunpowder, printing and compasses revolutionised technology

Zizhi Tongjian Written

1086

Sima Guang's historiography covered the 5th century bc to 10th ad, with the intent of providing moral lessons that guide governance; still didn't stray from objective lens. Also called Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance; really asserted tradition that history was used to derive lessons from past for current/future rulers

Insei Era

Period: 1086 to 1192

Emperors cloister themselves in powerful monasteries and manage affairs during their "retirement", came about as merging of monastic roles with imperial positions; emperor sought to make Buddhist monasteries and disciplines a tool of state by mediating arguments and debates between powerful schools of North and South (Yuima-e of Southern Hosso school, Mihakko which combined all schools)

Jurchen Jin Dynasty founded

1115

Northern Jurchen set up own state called Jin, putting pressure on Song dynasty and Koryo; Koryo must balance position between China and Jurchen, Song sees Koryo as possible avenue to negotiate with Jurchen through

Xu Jing's Illustrated Account of Korea Written

1124

Text from Chinese diplomat who visited Korea, describing it as model Confucian kingdom, though subject to omissions of things the Koreans didn't want China to see

Samguk Sagi compiled

1145

Written during the early Koryo period, refers back to Sima Qian's Shiji. Divided into 50 books

Choson Period

Period: 1170 to 1270

Middle Koryo period, with Koryo adopting some elements from powerful northern Jin Dynasty to prevent invasion; Chinese diplomat Xi Jing describes use of Jurchen imperial system in Korea as threat to Confucianism; government is ruled by military

Genpei Wars

Period: 1180 to 1185

Fighting between Minamoto and Taira clans that felled the Heian court and led to the establishment of the Kamakura shogunate, arrival of bakufu rule

Kamakura Period

Period: 1185 to 1333

Bakufu (military) rule begins as the Minamoto clan officially takes charge of governmental affairs, court is relegated to puppet role in Kyoto; Hojo clan soon assumes control

Bakufu Rule

Period: 1192 to 1868

The military officially seizes power, while the imperial court is kept as a ritual safeguard from metaphysical threats. Governing structure includes mandokoro (executive dept.), samurai-dokoro ("Board of Retainers", guards and criminal jurisdiction), gokenin (admin with shugo, governors and jito, manor lords and daimyo nobles) and monchujo, the civil judiciary. Eventually fell due to disaffected lower military nobles, called tozama, in 19th century.

Kagami Style Emerges

1200

Bakufu governments drastically change historiographical style, introducing a type of accessible writing called kagami. Containing less Chinese vocab, kagami texts were accessible to non-literati, down-to-earth and engaging. Glourified military actions and legitimised bakufu's right to rule

Hojo Regency

Period: 1203 to 1336

The Hojo family become the dominant nobles in the Kamakura Shogunate, but never officially seized power or declared themselves rulers. Hojo emblem found on many important temples, opulent decoration, etc.Another example of how Japanese governance fractured among aristocratic family lines

Goseibai Shikimoku Written

1232

Constitutional document that challenges/draws on Shotoku Taishi's constitution, with 51 documents instead of 17; generally more specific and practical document - focuses on proper observance and care of Buddhism to unify state, then describes hierarchy and power of new political system. Hierarchy in kuge and buke established: Kuge have dojo (high elites) and jige (low elites), divided on right to meet sovereign. Buke have same for fudai and tozama, resp.

Hojoki Written

1233

Historical document recording trouble of Hojo regency, from 1203 to 1233, notable mainly for its widespread use of Buddhist terminology, which marked shift away from shinto-based worship of Kytoto court. Follows rise of Zen Buddhism in Japan, which emphasised universality of suffering, justified military instability

Samguk Yusa Written

1245

The Samguk Yusa, or Memorabilia of the 3 Kingdoms, is second major Korean historiography, with an emphasis on folktales and mythology

Monogatori Style Develops

1250

Historical writing based on stories and narratives, monogatori texts mainly recorded deeds during the 12th century aristocratic infighting. Gunki monogatory legitimised and bolstered reputation of buke families, heike monogatori told of Genpei Wars between Minamoto and Taira, marking shift in power with vivid stories. Monogatori were easily spread to public, significant self-branding on part of bakufu

Azuma Kagami Compiled

1266

Bakufu records from 1180 to 1266, documenting the Kamakura period. Because they weren't official imperial records, they didn't have to conform so closely to Chinese literary ideals, style was freer. Kamakura leaders felt pressured to record events, thereby proving their use, legitimising rule. Shows importance of historiography regardless of which societal faction is in control. Difference in style and content sets Kamakura leaders apart from dry, ritualistic imperial historiographers

Late Koryo Period

Period: 1270 to 1392

End of Koryo era, with Mongols ruling the kingdom. Mongols in Korea are anti-Buddhist, effigies and statues of Buddha are destroyed

Yuan Dynasty

Period: 1271 to 1368

Mongol rulers head Chinese imperial systems, move capital to Beijing and greatly expand territory; Nanzhao (modern Yunnan) claimed for China. Yuan dynasty was Golden Age of Drama and Theatre, but weakened by natural disasters, rebellions and weak emperors

Ashikaga Shogunate

Period: 1336 to 1573

Shogunate set up by Ashikaga Takauji after rebellion against growing power of Hojo family within Kamakura; first years plagued by stubborn former Kamakura leader trying to set up own breakaway state. Functional power hindered by fact that Ashikaga weren't major landholders

Nambokucho Period

Period: 1338 to 1392

Nambokucho or North and South Courts was the governmental dualism that existed during the early years of the Ashikaga Shogunate. Kamakura shogun Go-Daigo didn't want to cede power, set up breakaway court in South. Another reflection of how embattled and fractured Japanese governance was

Ming Dynasty

Period: 1368 to 1644

Last dynasty ruled by Han ethnicity, inherited hydrological problems of Yuan. Eunuchs take increasing power in governance - up to 12,600 live and work in Forbidden City. Zheng He's exploration of Indian Ocean famous, but trade and foreign influences eventually curbed, protectionism practiced. Literature saw greater publishing, increased literacy, development of writer-intellectual class

Choson Dynasty in Korea

Period: 1392 to 1910

Taiheiki Written

1500

Historical epic recording the Hojo regency, Ashikaga Shogunate and Nanbokucho period. Factual deeds are related, but not in the dry or annalistic form of the Rikkokushi documents, tales are still memorable and accessible; interpretation of Nanbokucho period is that Go-Daigo tried to restore power to imperial court, failed

Sengoku Jidai

Period: 1573 to 1603

Sengoku Jidai or Japan's version of the Warring States period, characterised by extreme violence and chaos. Stability hinged on extremely fragile alliances between daimyo; political fragmentation reached critical levels, essentially protracted civil war. Ended with Tokugawa Ieyasu's foundation of Tokugawa Shogunate

Tokugawa Shogunate

Period: 1603 to 1868

Last government under bakufu rule, increasingly threatened by Western governing ideals in later years, revival of imperial power. Capital was moved to Edo, now Tokyo

Tokuguawa Ieyasu Consolidates Libraries

1614

Libraries consolidated in attempt to control literature, therefore control which views were disseminated to public. Citizens' understanding of history and world dictated by shogunate. Official appointed to identify new ideology for reign, ends up promoting Confucian ideals

Qing Dynasty

Period: 1644 to 1911

Last Chinese dynasty, headed by Manchus; struggled to formulate China's place in a Western-dominated world, humiliated by Opium Wars, economic downturns, modernisation efforts; Confucianism and ritual traditions vilified as hindrances to modernity

Dai Nihonshi

1657

Decisive history of Japan, promoted by the Mitogaku school of historiographical/philosophical thought, of which Tokugawa Mitsukuni and his son Tsunaeda were part. Massive undertaking of project showed importance of scholarship, intellect, historical records for justifying rule. Goes against Neoconfucian bias of Hayashi Razan's work

Honcho Tsugan Written

1670

Hayashi Razan's magnum opus about government and history, used to consolidate Tokugawa shogunate's identity and right to rule, implied morality and governance were intrinsically connected, ala Confucianism. Given to imperial house during Meiji restoration, greatly influenced their values

Mootori Norinaga

Period: 1730 to 1801

Reacting against Chinese style of historiography, he dedicated his life to deciphering the Kojiki; eventually concluded it was mostly sentimental, but established mythological and ethical purity of earlier periods in Japanese history. Norinaga promoted Kokugaku or nativist thoughts, slowly evolved into rampant nationalism

Meiji Restoration

1868

Imperial power restored as Japan seeks to make itself a nation along Western models, adopting a constitution highly influenced by Prussia's and undertaking serious industrial and scientific advancement