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Nov 25, 1500
First Occupants
For the First Nations peoples, there was no elected governing body. The only true power was held by either men or women, depending on which group it was. For the Iroquois, it was a matriarchy, meaning that the women played the vital leadership roles. For the Algonquians, it was a patriarchy, meaning that the men played the total leaderships roles. -
Period: Nov 25, 1500 to
Official Power and Countervailing Powers
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Power Relationships Between Amerindians and French
The French allied with the Hurons and Innu (Algonquian tribes), because they were looking for the control over the fur trade. These groups provided them with fur. However, these alliances provoked conflict, because the Algonquians were enemies with the Iroquois, and so the French become their enemies as well. Between the Iroquois and Algonquians, guerrilla warfare occurred: this consisted of using the element of surprise. -
Life in New France and Social Hierarchy
The settlers in New France had to work very hard, because they had to learn to take care of themselves, as New France wasn't developing very quickly. They became autonomous and were known as the Canadiens. There was a social hierarchy: there were the nobility/elite (governors, intendants, councillors), middle class/bourgeoisie (seigneurs and richer merchants) and peasants/habitants/artisans (censitaires, craftsmen). These groups thrived due to the distance from France. -
Absolutism After 1663
The King, Louis XIV, took control of New France after the charter companies period ended in 1663. He put in place the Royal Government, which lasted until 1760 (the Conquest). -
The Royal Government (Part 1)
The King and the Minister of Marine lived in France, and put various people and groups in charge of the colony. Firstly, the governor was of the highest rank. He was in charge of defence and external affairs. Then, there was the intendant, who had the most influence. He was the chief administrator, controlled the colony's budget, collected taxes, built roads and set up industries. The Sovereign Council was the high court. It included the governor, bishop, intendant and councillors. (1/2) -
The Royal Government (Part 2)
The Bishop administered over the Parish priests, hospitals, schools and charities. Finally, the Captain of the Militia dealt with issues on the seigneuries, but they had no seat on the council. (2/2) -
Collaboration Between Church and State
Before the 18th century, the Church held a lot of political power because of its seat on the Sovereign Council. The Church had control over religious matters, and the practice of Catholicism was obligatory. The Church was also responsible for public functions. In the 18th century, however, their influence decreased because they lost their seat on the Council. The State, on the other hand, could set the tithe and authorized the formation of new parishes and religious communities. -
Great Peace of Montreal
In the Great Peace of Montreal, 40 First Nations peoples agreed to the King of France being considered their ruler. They also allowed the governor general, Louis Hector Callière, to solve their conflicts and help France in wars. -
Articles of Capitulation
When Canada was given to the British in 1760, the Seven Years War continued in Europe, so it was placed under the military rule of James Murray. The articles of capitulation of 1760 stated that:
- French militia could return home and no one would lose their property
- The French regular military could lay down their arms and leave
- The Roman Catholic religion was allowed, but the Bishop had to leave
- People who stayed were British subjects
The French elite left to live as elite in France. -
Treaty of Paris
The Treaty of Paris was signed to signify the end of the Seven Years War. It officially made New France a British colony. The only territory that France had left in North America was the islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon. -
Royal Proclamation
The first constitution was signed in 1763, and had the goal of assimilating the French speakers, now that they were living in a British colony. It gave the colony a new name: the Province of Quebec, decreased its borders to the St. Lawrence Valley, put in place a new government where the King appointed a governor and he had a council, applied English laws, forced the Bishop to not be replaced, and did not allow Catholics to hold public office (Test Oath). -
Difficulties of James Murray
James Murray was the first governor of the colony, and found the Royal Proclamation to be hard to work with, as 99% of the population was french-speaking. To make the French content he:
- Allowed a new bishop
- Allowed French laws in lower courts
- Did not call an elected assembly that would benefit the English.
Although his modifications helped to satisfy the French, they upset the English merchants who had come to the colony (see next event). -
Guy Carleton
Because the English merchants were so unhappy with Murray's modifications, they wrote a petition to London to have him replaced. Murray was replaced by Guy Carleton in 1766, but he ended up keeping the same policies as Murray. The reason he was so tolerant was because he wanted to ensure the loyalty of the French, since the American revolution was beginning. -
Quebec Act
The Quebec Act was created in order to ensure that the French would be loyal to the British crown and not join the American revolution. So, its clauses benefitted the francophones. It enlarged the area of Quebec to include the Great Lakes, denied an elected assembly, appointed a council, put in place French civil laws, and replaced the Test Oath with the Oath of Allegiance, so they could now hold public office. -
The American Revolution
There were several factors that angered the inhabitants of the 13 colonies and made them rebel. They wanted to expand to the west but were denied by Britain, Britain felt that they didn't contribute enough to war, and Britain wanted to place strict rules about trade and income taxes (which was a disadvantage to the people who traded with the French). The Americans ended up declaring their independence and winning the revolutionary war, becoming the United States. -
Effects of the Loyalists on the Province of Quebec
Loyalists were people who had been living in the 13 colonies during the revolution but still wished to live under British rule. So, they immigrated to the only remaining British colony in North America: Canada. 36,000 loyalists went to Canada and settled mainly in the maritimes, and 6,000 went to Quebec and settled mainly to the West of Montreal. They increased the amount of English speakers in the colony from 1% to 10%. -
Constitutional Act
The Loyalists who came to the colony wanted to live under British laws and have an elected assembly like they did in the 13 Colonies .So, they wrote petitions to London for change that led to the Constitutional Act. It split the territory into Upper Canada (modern-day Ontario) and Lower Canada (modern-day Quebec). Lower Canada had 160,000 people and was mostly French, Catholic, and used French civil laws. Upper Canada had 20,000 people and was English, Protestant and used English laws only. -
Government Put in Place by Constitutional Act
A new mode of government was put into place in 1791: the representative government. It consisted of:
- The governor, who had veto power
- The executive council, which was chosen by the governor and could advise him
- The legislative council, which was chosen by the governor and could pass laws proposed by the legislative assembly
- The legislative assembly, which was elected by the people and could create laws or approve/disapprove taxes. -
Faults in the Representative Government
The major flaw in the government was that while the legislative assembly could make laws, they were vetoed by the governor and the executive council. The governor had different interests than the people. He wanted to benefit big businesses and tax property so to build roads and canals. The assembly wanted to tax goods and did not want to benefit large businesses instead of everyone else. The situation was worse in Lower Canada; since the council was English, the French were not represented. -
Requirements to Vote
At the time, voting was limited, and there were 3 conditions one had to fulfill in order to vote. One had to be a man, be over the age of 21, and own land. -
Political Parties in Upper and Lower Canada
In Lower Canada, the two opposing political parties were the Parti Patriote, which was comprised mainly of French intellectuals and professionals , and the British Party, which was comprised of wealthy people (most British) who supported British rule. In Upper Canada, there was the Family Compact, which was wealthy British conservatives, and the Reformers, who were intellectuals and professionals. -
Causes of the Rebellions in Lower Canada Part 1
The main cause of the rebellions was that the people couldn't be represented in the government. The only elected body was the legislative assembly, while the legislative and executive councils were both appointed by the governor. The governor and councils were able to veto any laws proposed by the assembly, so they had difficulty passing laws. Other concerns that lead to the rebellions were:
- British merchants wanted to increase taxes to build canals that would only benefit businesses (1/2) -
Causes of the Rebellions in Lower Canada Part 2
- Immigration from Great Britain threatened French culture and language
- In 1832, an immigrant ship brought cholera which hit Lower Canada
- In 1836, crops failed
- In 1837, there was an economic depression, for which the British merchants were blamed. (2/2)
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Concerns in Upper Canada
For the rebellions in Upper Canada, getting a responsible government (where the executive council is elected) was the main concern. They also wanted the reduction of the role of the Church in taxes and affairs, reducing the powers of values of traditionalism and conservatism, a stronger voice for the elected assembly, the abolishment of veto powers, and reduced voice for the Family Compact. -
92 Resolutions
In 1834, Louis Joseph Papineau, the leader of the Parti Patriote, wrote a document containing 92 demands of the elected assembly. The main demand was for a responsible government, meaning that the executive council should be made up of elected members instead of appointed ones. The document was sent to London. -
10 Russell Resolutions
The response to the 92 Resolutions arrives in the form of the 10 Russell Resolutions. All of Papineau's requests were denied, and power was taken away from the elected assembly; now, the governor could take money from the provincial treasury to pay officials. This document truly began the rebellions, because it upset the Patriotes. -
The Rebellions and their Aftermath
William Lyon Mackenzie lead the rebellions in Upper Canada, and Papineau lead the rebellions in Lower Canada. In Lower Canada, there were 3 main battles: St. Charles (won by the British), St. Denis (won by the Patriotes), and St. Eustache (won by the British). The Patriotes ended up losing the battle, because they were poorly organized and unequipped to fight. As a consequence, many rebels were executed or deported. -
Durham Report
In 1838, Lord Durham was sent to Canada to investigate the cause of the rebellions. His document made two proposals to the government in Britain: to unite the Canadas and to grant them a responsible government. His report lead to the Act of Union, which implemented some of his suggestions. It is also important to note that he was extremely biased towards the francophones, so uniting the Canadas would not benefit them. -
Act of Union
After the Durham report, the fourth constitution was put in place: the Act of Union. Britain took Durham's advice to unite the Canadas, but rejected the grant of a responsible government. Lower Canada became Canada East and Upper Canada became Canada West. English was the official language of the colony. The government was unified. The laws were unchanged both parts. Both Canadas had the same number of seats on the legislative assembly. Debt was consolidated between both Canadas. -
Responsible Government
In 1848, the responsible government was granted to Canada. This meant that now, the members of the executive council were taken from the elected legislative assembly. This meant that the people were now represented and more laws could pass in their favour. -
The Charlottetown Conference
The Charlottetown Conference was held in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island. Its purpose was to discuss the Canadian Confederation. There were multiple benefits to the union. Economically, it would be beneficial because it would increase the internal market and would combat international competition. Politically, it would stabilize the political tension between the French and the English. It would also enlarge the army, which was needed since they were at risk of being taken over by the US. -
The Quebec Conference
In the Quebec Conference, the same participants as the Charlottetown Conference wrote a document containing 72 Resolutions about how the Dominion of Canada would be run. they agreed that there would be a railroad going across the territory, a centralized federal government and a representation by population of each province's population in the assembly. After this conference, Newfoundland and Prince Edward Island withdrew. The union was passed narrowly by the assembly. -
The London Conference
The London conference was the final conference that lead to the formation of the Dominion of Canada. 16 delegates from Quebec, Ontario, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick gathered with members of the British government to draft the British North America Act, which was a continuation of the 72 Resolutions. -
British North America Act
This constitution created the Dominion of Canada, which consisted of the provinces of Quebec, Ontario, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. The capital was Ottawa. This constitution also created the government departments. The government was a centralized federal government, and it accorded certain powers to the federal and provincial governments. The Dominion of Canada had become a self-governing colony. -
Federal and Provincial Powers
The federal government was responsible for defence, banking and money, postal service and criminal law. The provincial government was responsible for municipal institutions, education, hospitals, property and civil rights. They had two shared responsibilities: immigration and agriculture. -
Church Within the Dominion
At the time of the creation of the Dominion of Canada, the Church was extremely influential. It was still in charge of registering births, marriages and deaths. They also controlled education completely, as well as orphanages, shelters, charities and religious festivals. The Church promoted traditional values, such as agriculturalism and large families. -
Louis Riel
Louis Riel was the leader of the Metis and the Manitoba government. He lead two rebellions against the Canadian government because he felt that the Metis were losing their rights. The first rebellion, the Red River Rebellion, which was in 1869-70, ended with a negotiation with the government about Manitoba joining the union. In 1885, he was hanged. -
Conscription Crisis (Military Service Act)
The conscription of 1917 was put into place because in World War One, there wasn't enough participation from Canada to support the British troops in Europe. So, prime minister Borden decided that conscription was necessary, even though Wilfrid Laurier refused because if he enforced it he would lose the elected to French nationalist Henry Bourassa. The Military Service Act was put into place, and the English supported it while the French did not. -
The Great Depression/Union Nationale
At the time of the Great Depression, there was a high volume of unemployment, so the government put measures in place to help. For example, unemployment insurance and family allowances were introduced to appease the citizens. From 1936 to 1939, Godbout and the Union Nationale took power for one term, and introduced the right to vote for women and compulsory education until the age of 14. They were voted back into power in 1944. -
Padlock Law
This law was put in place by the Duplessis government and it made strikes/unions as well as promoting communist ideas illegal. -
Duplessis and His Views
Duplessis stood for various ideas when he was in power in the 40s and 50s. He believed in provincial autonomy. He also believed in the idealization of rural life (people should live on farms and have traditional values), and that agriculture should be at the center Quebec's economy. He was therefore against urbanization. He believed that the Quebec government should not be interventionist. He had various nationalist policies, such as the Fleur-de-Lis flag and provincial income taxes. -
Groups against Duplessis
The two main groups that challenged Duplessis were union leaders and intellectuals. The union leaders thought that Duplessis served American interests instead of Quebec ones by allowing American investors to run the economy instead of the government. Duplessis was also opposed to strikes. Intellectuals such as Pierre Elliot Trudeau opposed his conservative ideas and attacked them in the media. -
The Asbestos Strike
This was a strike held by Asbestos miners. It was even supported by the Catholic Church. Despite this, Duplessis was very much against it. -
The Quiet Revolution
Jean Lesage's liberal government took power in 1960 after Duplessis' death, and thus began the Quiet Revolution. This lead to drastic political and social changes in Canada. The government began interfering in various areas of society. It also involved the separation of Church and State in various areas. The most important aspect of Lesage's era was that he nationalized Hydro-Quebec. In 1960, the slogan was "c'est le temps que ca change", but it changed to "maitres chez nous". -
The Role of the Church in the Quiet Revolution
During the Quiet Revolution, the power of the Church was significantly reduced due to the development of government institutions and the increased role of the state in the province's economic, social, and political life. Society had become more secular at this point, and this is what caused the shift in power. -
The Economy During the Quiet Revolution (Nationalization of Hydro-Quebec)
The government became more involved in Quebec's economy during the Quiet Revolution, which had been run by private companies before. The main event was the nationalization of Hydro-Quebec. The government also created various commissions, such as SOQUEM, SOQUIP, and SGF in order to make Quebec's economy more competitive on a global scale. -
Education in the Quiet Revolution
During the Quiet Revolution, the Church was separated from education, because people insisted on a more secular education. The government took control of education instead. This lead to the created of the Ministry of Education, making school mandatory up to the age of 16, and the introduction of cegeps in Quebec. -
Language Laws in Quebec (Bill 22 and Bill 101)
Nationalist movements that emerged during the 1960s were fed by the immigration of Allophones who were enrolling their children in English schools. This led to the French language being threatened, so measures were put in place by the government to prevent that. In 1961, Lesage created l'Office de la Langue Francaise. In 1974, Bourassa put in place Bill 22, which made French the official language of Quebec. In 1976, Levesque put Bill 101 in place, forcing immigrant children to learn French. -
Nationalist Political Parties in Quebec
In 1968, the Parti Quebecois was created by Rene Levesque. It was made up of two preexisting parties: the RIN and the MSA. The Partie Quebecois only actually come into power in 1976 under Levesque. There were also more extreme parties, such as the FLQ, which took to violence to promote Quebec nationalism. -
Healthcare During the Quiet Revolution
Before the 1960s, the government was not involved in healthcare at all. It was left to the private sector. However, with the rise of the welfare state, the government took on a greater role in the health system. The Quebec government developed a system separate from the rest of Canada in order to ensure its autonomy in the sector, and it set up a comprehensive healthcare program that is universal and free of charge. The Health Insurance Act was passed by Bourassa in 1970. -
The October Crisis
The October Crisis occurred when members of the FLQ kidnapped the provincial cabinet minister Pierre Laporte and the British diplomat James Cross. This was an example of the extreme measures taken by some political parties in order to promote separatism and Quebec nationalism. -
1st Referendum
The first referendum held regarding Quebec's independence was in 1980. The agreement was that Quebec would still have economic benefits with Canada, but would have political independence. It was triggered by the feelings of Quebec nationalism that led them to want their own nation. The "no" side ended up winning with 60% of the vote. -
Repatriation of the Canadian Constitution
Following the first referendum, Trudeau wanted to repatriate the constitution in order to unify the country. This meant that it would be sent from Britain to Canada, and Canada would be completely independent from Britain. All of the provinces agreed with the exception of Quebec. To this day, Quebec still has not signed on. In 1984, Mulroney tried to amend the constitution but to no avail. -
Meech Lake Accord
This was the first attempt of Mulroney to amend the constitution in order to satisfy all the provinces. It was written with various reforms, but Manitoba and Newfoundland refused to sign on. -
Charlottetown Agreement
This was the second attempt by Mulroney to amend the constitution in order to satisfy all the provinces. It was rewritten with reforms and focused on Aboriginal and Quebec rights. Premiers agreed, but a Canadian referendum was held and the people voted against it. -
2nd Referendum
In 1995, under Jacques Parizeau and the PQ, another referendum was held for the independence of Quebec. This time the vote was for a completely independent Quebec. The "no" side won with 50.6% of the vote.
