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1492
Columbus Discovers the Americas
Spanish monarchs commissioned Christopher Columbus to secure a new trade route to Asia and bring back gold and spices. He landed on the island of Hispaniola, what would soon be known as the "New World", and established the first European settlement in the Americas. His discovery caused mass attraction from the European powers of France, England, Spain, and Portugal to explore and settle the new land, which would ultimately develop into 35 independent nations. -
Jamestown Settlement
An English joint-stock operation and the Headright System allowed for the first permanent colonial settlement. The high death rate quickly shunned the ambitious goals of harvesting mass amounts of gold and pearls due to a lack of stable crops and water sources. After 5 years of strain, John Rolfe discovered a strain of tobacco that could flourish. It would soon bring the colony considerable funds while requiring more Native American land, commencing the start of future Native American conflicts. -
Locke's Natural Rights
Enlightenment philosopher John Locke believed that human beings could be rationed with, which led to him outlining the theory of natural rights. The rights of life, liberty, and property caused major religious conflict between the Old and New Lights and governmental conflict with the powers of the King. The idea of natural rights greatly inspired Thomas Jefferson and were foundational in the ideas present in both the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. -
French and Indian War
Apart of the Seven Years' War between Britain and France, the French and Indian War was sparked by the dispute over land in the Ohio River Valley. It furthered the conflict between settlers and Native Americans and led to both the proposal and rejection of The Albany Plan of Union. Ultimately ending with the Treaty of Paris of 1763, Britain was granted all French land east of the Mississippi River, allowing the colonies to grow both in population and resources. -
Sugar Act of 1764
Britain had recently fought the Seven Years' War and had a dire need to reduce its debt by bringing in more funds, hence imposing taxes on the colonies. Therefore the molasses and rum industries, which were extremely profitable for the colonies, had their profit margins reduced greatly through the new tax on sugar. This marked the first of many taxes imposed on the colonies that caused great backlash and increased the rates of smuggling significantly. -
Quartering Act of 1765
The Quartering Act forced the colonists to feed and house the British soldiers which came at the expense of the colonists' privacy and funds. Due to this, it caused one of the greatest backlashes from the colonists out of all the acts imposed on the colonies. It infuriated the wealthy and middle class as it violated the natural rights of the colonists. -
Boston Massacre
The Boston Massacre was a riot involving the confrontation of colonists and British soldiers in Boston. One side's firing led to all-out chaos and left 5 colonists dead, soon to be publicized widely by newspapers which furthered the American belief in independence. Some historians consider this the beginning of the American Revolution as it was the first colonial bloodshed at the hands of the British. -
Boston Tea Party
In protest of Parliament's passing of taxation of tea, colonists dumped 92000 pounds of tea into the Boston Harbor. The British government considered the colonist's actions treason and responded with the Intolerable Acts. This limited the colony's ability to engage in trade and commerce, outlawed assemblies, and took control of colonial governments; overall restricting the rights of the colonists dramatically. -
Battle of Lexington and Concord
The "shot heard around the world" describes the first shots of the American Revolution that took place at the Battle of Lexington and Concord. No one knows who fired first but left 49 colonists and 73 British soldiers dead. This event started the American Revolution which would go on to inspire many other European colonies to follow suit while ultimately reflecting the alienation between the colonies and Britain. -
Declaration of Independence
The repeated offenses of the British and inspiration from propaganda pieces formed the outline of the Declaration of Independence. Thomas Jefferson's first draft would soon be considered treason by the King while changing the nature of government throughout the world. The Second Continental Congress would discuss this matter while considering the establishment of a continental army, appointing a general leader, printing currency, and organizing a foreign nation committee. -
Battle of Saratoga
With defeat after defeat for the colonies, the Battle of Saratoga marked a turning point in the war. This was due to the surrender of one of the British armies which allowed the colonies to have an equal amount of armies as the British. This victory allowed Benjamin Franklin to gain the leverage needed to persuade the French to aid in the colonial war effort in their attempt to make up for the loss of the Seven Years' War. -
Articles of Confederation
The first system of government produced by the Second Continental Congress would rule the emergent United States for eight years. It outlined no executive power, standing army, or taxing authority, with decisions requiring one hundred percent agreement, reflecting the fears of the colonists for becoming too similar to Great Britain. Although producing a standard for towns, pathway to statehood, outlawing slavery, and overseeing the Northwest Ordinance, the Articles would soon eventually fail. -
Battle of Yorktown
Following a series of retreats to draw the Continental Army out of the city to starve for the winter, General Cornwallis arrived in Yorktown only to discover the French defeated the British navy, hence forcing the British to surrender. This battle reflected the improved strategies of the colonial army and the effects of the French alliance. This ultimately marked the end of the Revolutionary War and would soon be followed by a peace treaty. -
Treaty of Paris of 1783
The Treaty of Paris of 1783 finalized the American Revolution and recognized the United States as an independent nation. The United States would gain all land west of the Mississippi River which established clear national boundaries with the requirement for British posts to be surrendered. This document freed the United States to have the ability to run the country as a democracy and to develop independently from Great Britain. -
Shay's Rebellion
A violent protest of farmers in the Massachusetts countryside brought light to the massive shortcomings of the Articles of Confederation. With the Articles, farmers faced high taxation and became unable to pay their debts but were met with no solution from the government. The protest reflected unjust economic policies and a lack of government power as the government was unable to raise a militia to stop the rebellion, ultimately establishing the desperate need for a revision of government. -
The Constitution
With the failure of the Articles of Confederation, the Second Continental Congress established the document that would govern the United States all the way to the present day. Many opinions such as Virginia and New Jersey Plans reflected the many differing beliefs on the rightful abilities of government. Ultimately, the Constitution established the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government and their assigned checks and balances to ensure the constitutionality of the government. -
Bank of the United States
Alexander Hamilton's financial plan stressed the importance of establishing a national bank which was soon proposed to George Washington. It would function as a safe place to keep the government’s money, make loans to businesses, issue paper currency, and strengthen the federal government as a whole. While it received backlash from Jefferson who saw finances as intimate, it proved greatly beneficial for the American economy. -
Cotton Gin
Inventor Eli Whitney's creation of the cotton gin provided the Southern United States with a highly profitable industry. Before this, cotton was unprofitable as it took too long to harvest. The invention of the cotton gin was revolutionary, making cotton profitable and changing the course of the South. This gave a large rise in slavery as the labor demands for the cotton industry were so great that the current labor force was not able to keep up with it. -
Naturalization, Alien, and Sedition Acts
Under John Adams, fearing that the non-resident antifederalists would ally themselves with the French in war, legislation was passed for deportation. The Alien Act granted the president the ability to deport non-citizens who were subjects of foreign enemies, while the Sedition Act illegalized the publication of any "malicious" material that went against the government. These acts were significant in their direct violation of the First Amendment and caused the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. -
Louisiana Purchase
Out of fear that the US could lose control of New Orleans and access to the Mississippi River, Thomas Jefferson sent James Monroe to negotiate a purchase of New Orleans for three million. Napoleon countered by offering the entire Lousiana Territory for fifteen million. Jefferson struggled with the constitutionality of acquiring new land but decided to purchase the Louisiana Territory and doubled the country's size, soon followed by the commission of Lewis and Clark to explore the new territory. -
Marbury v. Madison
The first time the Supreme Court would declare an act of Congress unconstitutional was in Marbury v. Madison. This stemmed from John Adams appointing William Marbury as justice of the peace in the Judiciary Act of 1789, but James Madison refused to deliver the notice as he declared it unconstitutional, hence Marbury suing them to secure his position. The court decided that the original position was unconstitutional and ultimately solidified the Supreme Court's authority to enact judicial review. -
The War of 1812
Stemming from the British seizure of American ships, impressment, and support of Native Americans through weapons and training, the United States declared war on Britain. The bold morale of the Americans quickly dwindled with the many American shortcomings that caused the burning of the capital. Although, with the Treaty of Ghent marking the end of Indian resistance, the "Star Spangled Banner"' creation and improved nationalism proved essential to the growth and culture of the United States. -
Erie Canal
The creation of the longest artificial waterway in North America was a marvel of its time. It opened up the western regions of the United States to increase trade and settlement. People and goods were now able to be moved quicker, cheaper, and more efficiently. This proved the strength of American ingenuity to foreign nations while contributing greatly to the growth and industrialization of the United States. -
McCulloch v. Maryland
McCulloch v. Maryland stemmed from the debate on the constitutionality of establishing a federal bank and state power to tax the federal government. It solidified the supremacy of the Constitution over the opinions of the states. Congress ruling in McCulloch's favor expands their powers beyond what is explicitly stated in the Constitution and focuses on what is "necessary and proper". -
Missouri Compromise
The conflict of Missouri attempting to enter the United States as a slave state caused much political turmoil between the North and South. While Missouri wanted to be a slave state, its statehood was blocked by abolitionists. Henry Clay alleviated this issue by setting the 39th parallel as the free and slave border while requiring that accepted states have to come in pairs, leading to the statehood of Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state that merely temporarily pacified tensions. -
Monroe Doctrine
Under James Monroe's presidency, the Monroe Doctrine was enacted which closed the Western Hemisphere to any further colonization. This warned all European nations that the United States would not tolerate further interference by European powers. Alongside this, it pledged that the United States would remain uninvolved in European affairs. It solidified the United States power as a nation and its plans for forthcoming expansion. -
Tariff of Debate of 1828
Taxing foreign manufactured goods to encourage the purchase of American products increased profit margins considerably, benefitting the overall United States economy. While greatly increasing Northern industrial states' profit, European countries retaliated by buying less Southern cotton. This caused Southerners to argue that the tariff benefitted the North at the expense of the South, labeling it as the Tariff of Abominations and causing one of the first major rifts between the North and South. -
Indian Removal Act
Reflecting the thoughts of both Congress and the American people, Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act to encourage rapid population growth and "benefit" Native Americans. This opened land that native people once inhabited for colonization and slavery by forcing their migration westward. This led to the landmark Worcester v. Georgia and Cherokee Nation v. Georgia case, further raised tensions between Native Americans and settlers, and was the catalyst for the Trail of Tears. -
The Liberator
First created by William Lloyd Garrison, The Liberator was a major platform for speaking out against both slavery and its supporters. It brought awareness to the inhumane and brutal conditions slaves faced while highlighting the miraculous achievements of freed slaves which in turn created reflection and discussion on the abolishment of slavery. The awareness and breaking down of bias, alongside its publishing until the thirteenth amendment, proves its necessity to the abolitionist movement. -
Bank War
Stemming from Andrew Jackson refusing to sign the charter for the Second Bank of the United States, the Bank War reshaped the American economy as a whole. Jackson's conflict with the bank’s president Nicholas Biddle, primary funding for the bank coming from foreign investors, and supposed imposition on states' rights guided his decision. The collapse of the National Bank can be largely attributed to the Panic of 1837 as the installment of state-chartered banks became standard practice. -
Battle of the Alamo
With the war between Texas and Mexico, the American public was deeply sympathetic towards Texas with some even joining the war effort. The Battle of the Alamo left every soldier dead as resistance was so strong while also seeing the death of Davy Crockett which caused outrage from the American public. This led forces to come back stronger in following battles, ultimately winning independence for Texas, while raising tensions greatly between the United States and Mexico. -
Deere's Steel Plow
John Deere introduced a steel plow that was revolutionary for the mass migration into the western territory and eventually made the United States the world's leading wheat producer. Its heavier weight and ability to dig deeper than other plows allowed it to get under the roots of prairie grass to clear access to the fertile soil. The blocks pulled from the plow were utilized to build quick yet safe homes for those migrating which promoted further colonization and development of the west. -
Oregon Trail
Many took the journey westward in search of better lives in the form of wealth and land ownership, with some such as the Mormons seeking religious freedom. The journey was arduous and prolonged, with one out of ten lives being taken due to diseases such as cholera and typhoid fever, but the journey was made easier through inventions such as the Conestoga wagon. The settler's migration served as a fundamental factor in the development of both Oregon and the western United States as a whole. -
California Gold Rush
The California Gold Rush attracted those from South America, Europe, China, and Australia which caused its population to explode. This influx of immigrants led to a multifarious society that brought diversity to the United States but came with discriminatory legislation such as that of the Foreign Miner’s Tax. Ultimately, the rapid economic growth and prosperity of both California and the United States as a whole proved essential to the social and economic development of the United States. -
Treaty of Guadalope Hidalgo
With the surrender of the Mexican Army and the fall of Mexico City, peace negotiations with the United States commenced. This resulted in Mexico ceding fifty-five percent of its territory to the United States which gave the land of California, Nevada, Utah, and New Mexico, and set the Rio Grande as the Texas border. With the securing of California, Polk achieved making the United States a bi-coastal nation that would lead to the vast development of railroads and increase trading commerce. -
Compromise of 1850
With the conflict of California's status as a free or slave state, Henry Clay proposed the Compromise of 1850 which allowed California to enter the union as a free state, as they did not want slavery. It also abolished the slave trade in Washington D.C. However, the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 was enacted which saw strict fugitive slave laws enacted nationwide. Although both abolitionists and pro-slavery benefitted from territories applying for statehood to choose their status of slavery. -
Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin
Harriet Beecher Stowe's "Uncle Tom's Cabin" was considered by Abraham Lincoln to be the catalyst for the Civil War. His credit to Beecher Stowe is due to the novel's capturing of the hardships and indisputably brutal conditions that slaves faced while presenting their masters as possessing broken moral values. This depiction of slavery brought awareness to the unconstitutionality and immorality of slavery that would go on to be referenced in debates both on the local and national levels. -
Bleeding Kansas
Stemming from Kansas applying for statehood, the decision on whether it was to enter as a free or slave state caused great turmoil. This led both the North and South to advertise Kansas as a utopia in an attempt to entice as many people as possible to migrate. On the morning of the vote, the Missouri Border Ruffians surrounded the courthouse and prevented voting, falsified votes, and committed arson against abolitionists, which overturned the election results and furthered tensions over slavery. -
Dred Scott v. Sandford
Dred Scott’s owner moved from a Southern state to a Northern state, which caused him to argue how he could be a slave in a state where slavery was illegal. He sued his former owner with Roger B Taney as the Chief Justice. This case ultimately deemed the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional and solidified that black people would never possess any rights or citizenship. Abolitionists now argued that no states were truly free and were outraged at the ruling, pushing the country closer to civil war. -
1860 Presidental Election
The 1860 presidential election saw the Democratic party split between Northern and Southern divisions with disagreeing stances on the growth of slavery, marking the end of the Second Party System. This allowed Abraham Lincoln to win the presidential election without even being on the Deep South ballot. This election directly resulted in the succession of the Southern states and the formation of the Confederacy. Lincoln's election would prove essential to the eventual Union victory. -
Battle of Vicksburg
General Ulysses S. Grant mounted an offense that effectively weakened the Confederacy by splitting them in two by separating Louisiana, Arkansas, and Texas. This allowed for the seizure of New Orleans which gained the Union access to the entire Mississippi River which prevented Confederate communication and commerce. Through this, thousands of Confederate troops were prevented from fighting in the war, earning Grant recognition from Lincoln that allowed him to gain the Union General title. -
Battle of Gettysburg
The surprise confrontation between Union and Confederate armies caused a three-day battle with the most American casualties of any battle to date. Shocked by the amount of bloodshed, General George G. Meade allowed the Confederates to flee, causing Lincoln to reject him as Union General. This prompted Lincoln to give the Gettysburg Address which declared all men being created as equal and urged listeners to dedicate themselves to the “new birth of freedom", giving meaning to the war effort. -
Emancipation Proclamation
The Emancipation Proclamation offered the ability for the South to keep their slaves if they rejoined the Union peacefully, but if not, the reconquering of their state would cause their slaves to be taken as spoils of war and the return to a territory. This successfully abolished slavery in all states that were out of the Union by the start of 1863 and set a precedent for where the nation was heading. This clarified that the war effort was strictly about slavery and strengthened the Union. -
Thirteenth Ammendment
Lincoln's winning of the re-election prompted the Congressional approval of the Thirteenth Amendment that officially ended slavery in the United States. The majority in Congress of the Radical Republicans allowed them to push abolitionist legislation without pushback from the Confederacy. This guaranteed slavery's abolishment as a permanent solution rather than an act that would be able to be easily repealed. This allowed the United States to have a path forward as a united nation. -
Freedmen’s Bureau
The Freedmen’s Bureau was created to help newly freed blacks transition to a free life by targeting issues of inaccessibility. They ensured this by starting schools, negotiating labor contracts, securing loans, helping to find and purchase land, and providing legal aid. Its success was amplified with Congress' vote in 1866 for the extension of the bureau that allotted for increased funding and authorization for its agents to investigate abuse which was essential for combating Black Codes. -
Civil Rights Act of 1866
With the Southern states passing Black Codes that restricted the freedoms of freed blacks, the Civil Rights Act of 1866 gave citizenship to African Americans and offered some protections against the Black Codes. President Andrew Johnson strongly opposed both bills, although the Radical Republican majority allowed for the overriding of both vetoes. Their ability to push their abolitionist policies marked the start of Congressional Reconstruction and the push for the Fourteenth Amendment. -
Purchase of Alaska
Imperialism inspired Secretary of State William Henry Seward to advocate for a commercial empire through a transcontinental railroad and fight for a canal across Panama. Also seeking a route to Asia to access a variety of new consumers, Seward encouraged Jackson to purchase Alaska and the island of Midway, which would house coaling stations for ships. The purchase of Alaska and Midway was essential to establishing a solid trade route with Asia, which greatly benefitted the economy as a whole. -
Slaughter-House Cases
Slaughter-House Cases and Civil Rights Cases both began to repeal rights in the Fourteenth Amendment that gave way to future segregation. They limited the privileges and immunities of the Fourteenth Amendment to those strictly spelled out in the Constitution, with no room for state's rights. This allowed for the continuation of hate crimes, Jim Crow laws, and overall discrimination of freedmen that caused extreme oppression that would be left unaddressed for nearly a century. -
Political Crisis of 1877
The election of 1876 saw conflicting electoral votes from the three states that still possessed Reconstructionist governments. The Constitution did not account for this election crisis, resolving for a commission of five Democrats, five Republicans, and five Supreme Court Justices. This resolution only left one neutral member, who ultimately declared Rutherford B. Hayes as the next president which caused extreme outrage in the South, despite foul play on both sides. -
Jim Crow Laws
“Jim Crow” laws were beginning to experience rapid growth in the Southern United States which ensured social segregation in transportation, accommodations, schools, and courts that eventually were present in every Southern state. This legalized segregation while greatly restricting and suppressing black civil rights. While sympathetic to the cause, the North and the federal government's diverted focus resulted in little to no efforts to prevent them which gave rise to discriminatory culture. -
Hull House Creation
Some women attempted to help immigrant families by creating settlement houses where immigrant families could learn English, take classes, get basic material assistance, and find access to legal help
Run by Jane Addams, the Hull House in Chicago became the most widely recognized. This proved essential to the immigrant community acclimating to life in the United States and provided great momentum for the women's suffrage movement by proving their capability to initiate change in the community. -
Sherman Anti-Trust Act
Theodore Roosevelt's passing of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act marked the first time a piece of legislation allowed the government to go after monopolies. This forbid anti-competitive business activities by allowing the government to review businesses on a case-by-case basis. Roosevelt distinguished between bad trusts and good trusts which considered how essential a company's services were to the community and its rates, ultimately resulting in the Standard Oil decision that disbanded Standard Oil. -
"City Beautiful" Movement
Exposes and photography being published led to mass awareness around the poor condition of urban areas, prompting an era of progressivism. The European discovery of bacteria prompted a mass American health system reform. Infant mortality prompted further limits to smoke exposure and the need for more areas in the city that were safe for children to play created the “City Beautiful” Movement. This dramatically affected the quality of life in urban areas and marked government focus on sanitation. -
Plessy v. Ferguson
Plessy v. Ferguson originated from Homer Plessy buying a first-class train ticket and being denied seating in the white train car. This case ended up ruling in favor of segregation as long as accommodations were “separate but equal" which allowed for the upholding of Jim Crow laws. This decision was used to justify segregation of all public facilities, including schools. Until 1954, this ruling was law that allowed for legalized discrimination and racism against the black community. -
Williams v. Mississippi
Populists appealing their views to align with the needs of farmers and wage earners resonated with many African Americans. In fear of their party's depleting power, Democrats imposed
poll taxes and literary tests which were held up in Williams v. Mississippi. This caused voter turnout to plunge and resulted in both poor whites and blacks now being unable to vote. This ruling would forever alter the political dynamics of the South as the Democratic Party grew rapidly without competition. -
Spanish-American War
The tensions with Spanish intervention in the Cuban revolution began to involve the US after the interception of the de Lome Letter and the sinking of the USS Maine. With the Teller Amendment signed, the United States fought alongside Cuba and engaged Spanish fleets in both Cuba and the Philippines. After only a few short battles, Spanish forces eventually surrendered after 4 months. The United States became a world power, got to build Guantanamo Bay, and gained all Spanish territories. -
Sinclair's "The Jungle"
Upton Sinclair's “The Jungle" supported socialism by shining a light on the conditions in the meat packing industry. Limbs, rats, maggots, spoiled meat, and occasionally full humans fell into the meat mixture that revolted the public. Roosevelt assembled a team and carried out a surprise inspection of the meatpacking plants and was furious at the conditions. This ultimately resulted in Congress signing the Meat Inspection Act and Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 which improved general hygiene. -
Great Migration
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Triangle Shirtwaist Fire
The Triangle Shirtwaist Fire was a warehouse fire that broke out and left 146 primarily young immigrant women dead from burning alive or jumping to their deaths as they were unable to escape. The outrage crossed ethnic, class, and religious boundaries. This ultimately led to the passing of 56 laws dealing with fire hazards, unsafe machines, wages, and working hours for women and children that were passed by New York State. The resulting labor code was the most advanced in the United States. -
Opening of the Panama Canal
Roosevelt's Big Stick Diplomacy led him to encourage Panama to gain independence from Brazil. In return, he promised to build the Panama Canal which would provide passage from the Pacific to the Atlantic Ocean at a much reduced amount of time. This benefitted the American economy and improved general American welfare as goods could be moved quicker, making them less expensive and much more accessible. The project reflected the United States' economic power and technological advancements. -
Trench Warfare
First utilized at the beginning of World War I, trench warfare marked an entrance into modern warfare. This change was prompted by the need for protection and defense against the use of machine guns and rifles. In previous wars, ground gained was measured in miles, although in trench warfare, ground was gained in inches or feet which greatly prolonged the war. The conditions of trenches were brutal, hence disease was common and required the creation of tanks to travel over 'No Man's Land'. -
Sedition Act 1918
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!Treaty of Versailles
Wilson’s Fourteen Points largely guided the Treaty of Versailles which ended World War I. It outlined the creation of the League of Nations that aimed to prevent future hostilities. -
19th Amendment