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This led to absolute monarchy being swept awayand the introduction of political and administrative reform based on the idea of liberty
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This affected Italy due to the Austrian control over Lombardy and the influence it had over the other Italian states.
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They spoke about liberty and the brotherhood of man. They were involved in plots to overthrow the government in Naples and Turin. They also spoke about liberty of the Italian people which would be achieved by the destruction of autocracy.
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Napoleon had the intention to sweep out Austrian influence. A series of French victories left Napoleon in control of most of Italy and made a number of political changes.
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The regions of Lombardy, Modena, Bologna, Romagna and Ferrara were united into this republic. It had an administrative model similar to the French one but Parliament was elected by Napoleon.
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But he handed it over to the Austrians
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This meant Piedmont lost Savoy and Nice to France
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They deposed the Pope Pius VI. A revolutionary Roman republic was set up under French control and the republic's constitution was modelled on that of the French.
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This was known as the Second Coalition and planned for the Austrian and Russian armies to invade Italy
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This ended in the slaughter of thousands of middle class supporters of the new order
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He seized political power and declared himself First Consul and planned a campaign in Italy
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He restored the Cisapline Republic and moved rapidly to face the large Austrian army
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Napoleon had a great victory which secured French control of Northern Italy for the next 14 years
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This was annexed to France
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This included Piedmont, Parma and Liguria. These regions were ruled as Franch departments and were exposed to the administrative reforms that were imposed in France, the Code Napoleon.
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Between 1805 and 1808
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All feudal rights were abolished
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This meant that Rome was to be incorporated into the French Empire and Pope Pius VII was to become a prisoner
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The British encouraged the introduction of a constitution in 1812 to be drawn up based on British lines- Parliament with two houses and a constitutional monarchy.
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Secret Societies (Carbonari) plotted against the restored governments
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Victor Emmanuel I returned to Piedmont and restored an absolutist state. Code Napoleon was repealed. The port and state of Genoa was granted to the House of Savoy
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Lombardy was returned to Austrian control
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Teh Central Duchies were left tightly under Austrian influence. Grand Duke Ferdinand III, brother of the Austrian Emperor, became ruler of Tuscany. However, he was not as repressive a other rulers as he allowed freedom of expression which was not allowed in the rest of Italy.
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The repeal of the Sicilian-British style constitution in 1816 was a grievance for many. In both Naples and Sicily liberals hoped that the return of the Bourbons might bring a constitution that would guarantee political liberties.
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The Borbon King, Ferdinand I was restored to his throne and despite promises of maintaining some of the French legacy, the Church was restored as the original position of power and authority.
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the victors of the war, Britain, Austria, Russia and Prussia drew up a settlement they hoped would ensure peace in Europe. Prince Metternich was the most influential of the peacemakers.
Metternich hoped to restore pre-1796 order. This crushed the hopes of liberals and nationalists. -
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They had to pay for the Austrian army of occupation and reparations were imposed by Austria. There were cutbacks in government spending.
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Napoleon was banished to the island of St Helena in the Atlantic Ocean
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Pope Pius VII was restored to his position as spiritual and temporal ruler of the Papal States. Code Napoleon was abolished in most places (not Emilia-Romagna) and the papal legal codes were re-established. Austrian armed forces were to be stationed in the Papal States, this showed that Austrian would use force to protect the settlement imposed on Italy
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This meant a decline in trade
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Its main aim was the destruction of Austrian rule that would lead to a democratic republic. Its leader was Filippo Buonarrotti who was an experienced revolutionary. The membership was based in the North.
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This was trigger for revolution in Naples.
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The scale was small, 30 members of the Carbonari supported by 100 soldiers from the local garrison.
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A new government was sworn in that included a number of ministers from the Carbonari. However, the new government was quickly undermined by its own weaknesses as the Carbonari were divided umong themselves as they had no policies apart from the demand for a constitution
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The revolutionary uprisings worried Austrian foreign minister Prince Metternich so much that he called a congres at Troppau to discuss this issue. Metternich was an enemy to any revolutionary activity across Europe. The Troppau Doctrine was agreed by Eastern powers but not Britain (Did this show their support?)
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Ferdinand was invited to join, which he did. Once out of Naples, he renounced the constitution and demanded the Austrians for military support
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Ferdinand unleashed a wave of repression and a number of the Carbonari were executed.
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Revolution then spread. In Turin, the army mutinied and Victor Emmanuel abdicated in favour of his brother Charles Felix who was away on a visit to Modena. Charles Albert was appointed regent.
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These revolutionaries were nationally minded in that they wanted to expel Austria from Italy. Charles Albert issued a constitution. However, when Charles Felix returned from Modena he declared he would not accept any change in the form of government and asked Metternich for military support. Charles Albert fled.
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This showed that Austrian domination was the most important factor in deciding the political fate of Italy.
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News spread from Naples to Sicily. There was great unrest in Palermo and there were cries of support of a new constitution. The revolution was led by workers in Palermo. Little in their demands suggested they had any nationalist sentiment. The revolution was also only confined to Palermo.
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He immediately imposed a strict clerical regime
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Many of the Italian revolutionaries fled abroad to France and took part in the July Days uprising. Charles X the French king was overthrown and replaced by Louis Phillipe who promised to act as a constitutional monarch. Italian revolutionaries believed that the revolution in France may lead to French support of a similar revolution in Italy.
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Attempt of a revolution by Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (III) in Rome was a failure. A more serious reaction to the clerical rule emerged. The aim was not to create a united Italy but to challenge the clerical state and re-establish a secular state similar to the one under Napoleonic rule.
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The uprising in Modena was led by Enrico Misley who originally tried to enlist the support of the Duke, Francesco IV by promising him support in becoming King of Italy. Francesco appeared interested by became aware of challenging Austrian power. He had Ciro Menotti arrested who was one of the most important members of the conspiracy.
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This was led by Colonel Giuseppe Sercognani
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While there he heard news that the ruler of Parma, Marie Louise, had fled in similar demands for a constitution
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The revolutionaries were crushed and revolutionaries like Menotti were executed
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It issued a constitution promising:
A reformed finance system with moderated tariffs,
An elected assembly that would choose a president and cabinet,
A fairer judicial system based on Napoleonic rule, -
The revolutionary army surrendered to Papal forces believing the papal intermediary cardinal when he promised amnestu for all those who had taken up arms against papal rule. They were mistaken to trust him. The Papal armies swept through the marches acting in a manner that would sow the seeds for further revolution.
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-Believed in democracy
-The will of the people was to live in an 'independent nation' and to achieve this it was necessary to engage in revolution
-Mazzini did not only envisage a union of northern Italian states but a union of all Italian speaking provinces
-Young Italy was also republican in its views but did not dismiss constitutional monarchies -
Charles Albert's government response was ferocious, 12 members of Young Italy were excecuted and 67 arrested
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This raised consciousness of a common culture and language among educated classes
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These meetings were attended by delegates from many different regions. The topics discussed were wide ranging and the language used at these meetings was Italian.
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This had a clear political message, it was about the parallel that can be drawn between the enslavement of the Israelites and the repression of the Italians
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This was equally nationalistic as 'Nabucco'. Verdi's works also had anti-Austrian sentiment and performances of his works caused outbursts of violence between Italian patriots and Austrian army officers.
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-Gioberti agreed that Italy should be rid of all foreign influence
-he believed there should be the creation of an Italian federation under the Pope
-He believed the papacy in Rome gave Italians the upper hand over other European people
-This established the neo-Guelphs
-However his book failed to address the issue of Austrian control of Lombardy or Venetia and the fact Papal rule of the Papal States had not been popular or effective -
-He argued in favour of a federation of states but only limited to the north
-Balbo accepted that the Papacy was important, however, he suggested that the Piedmontese monarchy should take the lead in expelling the Austrians from Lombardy and Venice
-Balbo argued against revolution and argued for the solutions of dilemmas facing Italian nationalists being found in Italian and European diplomacy
-Balbo failed to address what would happen if Austria refused to move out of Lombardy -
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He was succeeded by Cardinal Mastai Ferretti who chose the title of Pius IX. Pius was quite liberal in that he declared amnesty for political offences and released 2,000 prisoners from the papal gaols. This move impressed the liberals as did his election of the liberal Cardinal Gizzi as his Secretary of State.
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-Those who died in the Romagna revolution should be treated as Martyrs because they fought against Austrian and Papal tyranny
-Revolution was NOT the way forward
-Balbo and D'Azeglio agreed that public opinion and European opinion were crucial. If it was well informed and positive, change would come naturally -
Poor harvests led to food riots from north to southand made deep-rooted economic problems worse:
-In southern areas land enclosure had taaken common land from the peasantry who responded with violence
-In the north, under-employment in the textile industries resulted in workers destroying machienery -
A civic guard of local people was created to protect property and the guard was armed.
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This advised the papcy on how to run the Papal States. Although the council's powers were limited, many liberals believed it was the first step on the road to the elected Parliament they desired.
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-Pius lodged a formal protest with the Austrian government where he claimed the soverignity of the Papal States had been infringed
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He allowed press censorship to be relaxed and local government reorganised. However, granting reform still did little to satisfy the liberals and radicals who increased their demands for reform. The same happened in Tuscany where Duke Leopold II introduced limited reforms which encouraged radicals to demand a constitution.
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A treaty was signed in November with Tuscany and Piedmont which left out the states controlled by Austria
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There were no demands for national unity but a reaction against the repressive regime of Ferdinand II. After a few days the revolutionaries had taken control of the city. The demand of the revolutionaries was re-establishment of the 1812 constitution which Ferdinand would not accept.
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-A National Guard was established to ensure the lower orders and more militant revolutionaries did not get out of control
-Hostility was maintained towards Naples and key government positions were reserved for Sicilians -
This included a promise to free political prisoners. However this wasn't enough for the revolutionaries who still wanted a constitution.
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This forced Ferdinand to agree to a constitution. However, he agreed partly due to the fact that he could not rely on Austrian support as his father had done in 1820 because as a result of Austrian behaviour is Ferrara Pius IX refused to let Austrian troops cross the Papal States.
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-Parliament was given the right to introduce laws
-The lower house of parliament was to be elected on a limited suffrage and was given the power to discuss financial issues
-It guaranteed civil liberties for Piedmontese citizens, e.g. religious toleration. It was the granting of such liberties which meant the Statuto went further than other constitutions -
The Milanese boycotted smoking because Austria held the monopoly over the sale of tobacco in Lombardy
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This was a trigger for revolution
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The Austrian governor and troops were on one side with a coalition of anti-Austrian forces, including Mazzinians, liberals, around 100 priests, artisans and writers on the other.
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The temporary collapse of Austrian rule left a political vacuum in Lombardy. The conservative moderates of the Milan City Council feared an independent Lombard republic and so proposed a union with Piedmont. During the uprisings, more radical milanese formed a Council of War led by Carlo Cattaneo and they wanted a creation of a federation of Italian republics.
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In Venice the demonstrations were demanding the release of Daniel Manin, he was finally released and a Venetian republic was declared. The newly elected Venetian assembly voted to ask Charles Albert for help.
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Due to the moment of Austrian weakness and Metternich gone, Lombardy was ripe for annexation. Charles Albert believed he could annex Lombardy without a fight. Troops from across Italy converged on Lombardy to join with Charles Albert to purge Italy of the hated Austrians once and for all. Soldiers came from Naples and the Papal States.
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They feared the return of Austrians so asked Charles Albert for support
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This meant an Italian prince was to be chosen in his place
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He allowed the creation of a Parliament but it had less power than those in other states. He also denied the citizens of the Papal States the basic liberties promised by the Piedmontese Statuto.
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-He stated the war against Austria did not have his blessing
-He highlighted that Charles Albert was the agressor in the war
-The idea of a united Italy was not supported by the papcy and he did not wish to be a potential leader of any Italian confederation -
General Pepe (who brought troops from Naples) was ordered home, although he ignored these requests many of his troops headed south.
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It took Pechiea and won the Battle of Goito
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This was not a radical revolution butt aimed at a constitutional settlement that would give Italy independence. But this was not acceptable to Ferdinand.
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Radetzky had persuaded the Austrian government to fight for Lombardy rather than give it to Charles Albert
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This meant Charles Albert gave up Lombardy
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This earned him the nickname 'King Bomba'
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This move would have stopped the Piedmontese from believing the Austrians would be prepared to give territorial concessions to prevent further conflict.
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The assassination of Rossi was the trigger of an insurection against the Pope which is why he fled Rome.
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This caused Charles Albert to abdicate the threone of the Kingdom of Sardinia in favour of his son Victor Emmanuel II
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Piedmont was forced to pay reparations of 65 million french francs. This humiliated the Italians and led them to believe that in order to defeat the Austrians militarily, they would need help from abroad.
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Rossi was not popular with the Rome mob and was murdered on 15th November while entering the Roman Parliament.
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Galletti introduced some popular measures:
-The abolition of Macinato (a tax which was placed on the griding of corn)
-The government proposed the meeting of a Constituent Assembly, the Costituente, which would decide the future of Rome and Italy -
-4 Italians led by Count Felice Orsini
-The hope was that this would lead to the restoration of a republic in France that would help make an Italian republic
-Orsini's bomb failed to harm Napoleon by killed 7 onlookers and 150 others -
-Kingdom of upper Italy, ruled by the House of Savoy would be created to cover the provinces of Piedmont, Venetia and Lombardy and the duchies of Parma, Modena and Papal Legations
-Kingdom of Central Italy controlled by Tuscany
-In return for 200,000 troops, Napoleon demanded Nice and Savoy
-Agreement sealed with marriage of Maried Clotilde (Italian King's daughter) and Prince Jerome Bonaparte -
-Piedmont gave into Napoleon
-Austria agreed France would have Lombardy which would be given to Piedmont in time
-Piedmont would not be given Modena or parma, and would be forbidden to annex Mantua and Peschiera in Lombardy
-An italian confederation would be set up with the Pope at the head