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Publication of the U.S. Constitution
The new constitution authorizes Congress to “establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization,” eventually giving the federal government the sole authority over immigration. However, it was unclear who was considered a citizen by this clause alone. -
Naturalization Act of 1790
The first law of Congress created to establish a rule of naturalization, the Naturalization Act of 1790 stated that "...any Alien being a free white person, who shall have resided within...the United States for the term of two years, may be admitted to become a citizen...". Additionally, persons under twenty one years of age who are children of a free white person who was naturalized in the above fashion are citizens as well. This act excluded any nonwhite persons from citizenship. -
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
Following the conclusion of the Mexican-American war, America annexed a great deal of territory from Mexico, including some or all of future states Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming. As part of their peace treaty, America extended citizenship to all inhabitants living in this annexed territory. The Supreme Court would later use this treaty to grant citizenship to Mexican-born persons. -
Dred Scott Decision
In a landmark decision, the Supreme Court ruled in Dred Scott v. Sandford that the Constitution did not confer American citizenship to African Americans, whether they were slave or free. It would take a civil war before black Americans were given their right to citizenship. -
Ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment
As the Civil War concluded, the Thirteenth Amendment was ratified by the states. The amendment abolished slavery, but it did not grant formerly enslaved persons the full rights of citizenship. -
Ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment
With the passage of the Fourteenth Amendment, the states decided that all persons born or naturalized in the United States were citizens and guaranteed “equal protection" under the law. This meant that African Americans were finally guaranteed citizenship after nearly a century of being denied American citizenship. -
Naturalization Act of 1870
While this piece of legislation extended naturalization rights to former African slaves not born in the United States, it also made sure to continue excluding Asian immigrants and other nonwhites from citizenship. -
Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882
Formally called the Immigration Act of 1882, this legislation suspended immigration for Chinese persons. The Chinese Exclusion Act further ensconced an attitude of hostility towards Asian immigrants that would last long after its repeal in 1943. -
United States v. Wong Kim Ark
The Supreme Court case of United States v. Wong Kim Ark found that any child born in the United States, regardless of race or parents’ citizenship status, is an American citizen. Meaning, that even if Asians living in the United States were not considered citizens, their children were naturalized. -
Jones–Shafroth Act
The United States had acquired Puerto Rico, as well as Cuba and the Philippines, after conflict with Spain, but the rights of persons living in these territories remained undecided. In 1917, Congress granted American citizenship to all persons living in Puerto Rico, but not to those in their other newly acquired territories. -
Immigration Act of 1924
Known as the Johnson-Reed Act, this created a quota system of immigration that greatly reduced the number of possible immigrants. The system was predicated on national origins, and it greatly favored immigration from predominantly white nations over predominantly nonwhite nations. Thus, America was effectively refusing possible citizenship to a number of nonwhite persons. -
Indian Citizenship Act of 1924
With this act, Congress recognized birthright citizenship to all Native Americans. The Fourteenth Amendment and certain Supreme Court rulings had extended citizenship to most nonwhite persons in America but not to Native Americans. Now, these indigenous people could attain legal representation within the United States. -
Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952
Also known as the McCarran-Walter Act, this legislation completely eliminated race as a bar to immigration or citizenship, although it did maintain a national origins quota that continued to discriminate against nonwhite immigrants. So, true diversity in immigration would not be achieved for another thirteen years. -
Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965
Named the Hart-Cellar Act after its cosponsors in Congress, this new law overturned the Johnson-Reed Act of 1924 and with it the national origins quota system. While it still allowed for bias against so-called "unskilled workers", this new law opened up the doors for citizenship to persons long neglected. -
Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986
Passed under the Reagan administration, IRCA provided amnesty to 2.7 million immigrants who had entered the country illegally prior to 1982, thus allowing them the opportunity to formally apply for citizenship. -
Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA)
An executive order issued by the Obama administration in 2012, DACA provided protection from deportation and work authorization to persons who arrived as minor children and had lived in the United States since June 15, 2007. Unfortunately, this action is not as stable as an official piece of legislation, and DACA has continued to be a highly debated topic in the U.S. Still, millions of young immigrants have a better chance to obtain citizenship under this executive order. -
Muslim Travel Ban
This Trump administration executive order banned travel from the predominately Muslim nations of Iran, Iraq, Libya, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, and Yemen for at least 90 days. Other nations later added, including Nigeria, Eritrea and Sudan. It was struck down numerous times before the Supreme Court upheld it in 2018. Sadly, America's message towards Muslim nations seemed a resounding "stay away". The Biden administration eventually rescinded the ban, but its effects continue to reverberate.