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Naturalization Act of 1790- The Birth of American Citizenship
Starting in 1790, those who were free and white "could gain citizenship if they had lived in the U.S. for two years and had a good character. The new citizens’ children under the age of 21 were given citizenship, too" (Blakemore, 2020). Indentured servants & women were not mentioned.
Reference:
Blakemore, E. (2020, May 12). Why the United States Has Birthright Citizenship. History.com. Retrieved from https://www.history.com/news/birthright-citizenship-history-united-states. -
Mass Irish Immigration
The potato famine and numerous political conflicts in Ireland caused a mass immigration of the Irish to arrive in the United States. Most arrived by ship and landed in Massachusetts and New York. -
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo- Citizenship at the End of the Mexican-American War
For any Mexicans who were residing in the claimed states, they were granted U.S. citizenship if they chose to "remain -although their legal citizenship did not confer all the acceptance and integration of social citizenship" (University of Texas, 2019).
Reference:
University of Texas. (2019). Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848). Immigration History. Retrieved from https://immigrationhistory.org/item/treaty-of-guadalupe-hidalgo/. -
The Dred Scott Decision on Black Citizenship
A U.S. Supreme Court ruling that African Americans were forbidden from applying for American citizenship/becoming United States citizens, even if they resided in free states. -
Mass Polish and Russian Immigration
Poland was under the Russian Empire during the time in which a mass immigration of the Polish ventured off to America. The Polish were facing economic hardships and wanted more job opportunities, whereas the Russians who joined them in immigrating were facing starvation and poverty. Large groups of the two were traveling over to America around the same timeframe. -
African Americans Granted Citizenship
African Americans were granted American citizenship in 1868 when the 14th Amendment was added to the Constitution. Despite this, their rights were still limited in comparison to those of white American citizens. -
Naturalization Act of 1870 (Update to the 1790 Version)
Citizenship and the constitutional protection of African Americans and individuals of an African background were ensured. Although, the update also mentioned to "maintain racial distinctions that denied naturalization rights and access to citizenship to Asian and other non-white immigrants" (University of Texas, 2019).
Reference:
University of Texas . (2019). Naturalization Act of 1870. Immigration History. Retrieved from https://immigrationhistory.org/item/naturalization-act-of-1870/. -
Page Law of 1875
Unfree laborers/women who were brought over to the U.S, for “immoral purposes” were prohibited from gaining U.S. citizenship, particularly those who were of Asian descent to "restrict immigration w/o categorically restricting Asian immigration based on race" (University of Texas, 2019). This law occurred during a boom in Chinese immigration in CA.
Reference:
University of Texas. (2019). Page law (1875). Immigration History. Retrieved from https://immigrationhistory.org/item/page-act/. -
Mass Italian Immigration
A mass number of Italians immigrated to America for work or to learn trades. Some Italians would work in America to send money back to their families. Political issues, a lack of help from the government, and wide-sweeping poverty were the potential other factors. -
Chinese Exclusion Act
Despite "the .0002% of Chinese people in the U.S., Congress passed" (History.com Staff, 2018) this law to not allow them to obtain citizenship. This act was one of the first to restrict immigration to the U.S. and was set in place to stop Chinese immigrants from migrating to the U.S., reducing their opportunities to take jobs in CA.
Reference:
History.com Staff. (2018, August 24). Chinese Exclusion Act. Retrieved from https://www.history.com/topics/immigration/chinese-exclusion-act-1882. -
Immigration Act of 1891
The federal gov. created a law to enforce immigration inspections. A list of deportable people was also created. Some of these types of people included "felons, polygamists, insane persons, paupers or persons likely to become a public charge” as well as those suffering from infectious diseases" (University of Texas, 2019).
Reference:
University of Texas. (2019). Immigration Act of 1891. Immigration History. Retrieved from https://immigrationhistory.org/item/immigration-act-of-1891/. -
Plessy v. Ferguson
A case that inspired the Supreme Court to decide segregation was constitutional. Although African Americans were American citizens, they were treated as non-U.S. citizens and did not have the same rights or freedom as white U.S. citizens. -
United States v. Wong Kim Ark
Wong Kim Ark was denied U.S. citizenship despite being born in America (after visiting China), "the Supreme Court decided that a child born in the U.S. to parents of foreign descent is a citizen of the U.S. unless the parents are foreign diplomats, or born to parents who are nationals of an enemy nation" (Densho, 2020).
Reference:
Densho. (2020, July 15). United States v. Wong Kim Ark. United States v. Wong Kim Ark . Retrieved from https://encyclopedia.densho.org/United_States_v._Wong_Kim_Ark/. -
Anarchist Exclusion Act
Also called the Immigration Act of 1903. Four additional classes were added to the Immigration Act of 1891. The four classes that were eligible for deportation were anarchists, individuals caught/associated with importing prostitutes, beggars, and individuals with epilepsy or those who deal with frequent seizures. -
The Expatriation Act on American Women who Married Non-U.S. Citizens
If a woman married a man who was not a U.S. citizen, she would lose her American citizenship. This rule did not apply to men who married women who were not U.S. citizens. -
Gentleman's Agreement Between Japan and America
The Japanese government agreed to assist the U.S. with restricting Japanese immigration to the U.S. as long as the U.S. promised to protect the rights of the Japanese immigrants who were already residing there in addition to their descendants. -
1917 Immigration Act
Individuals from Asia were prevented from immigrating to the U.S. In particular, it "targeted Asian, Mexican, and Mediterranean immigrants in an attempt to curb their migration" (Eji, n.d.) Additionally, it included "people with mental and physical handicaps, the poor, and people with criminal records or suspected of being involved in prostitution" (Eji, n.d.).
Reference:
Eji. (n.d.). On this day- Feb 05, 1917. Eji. Retrieved from https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/feb/5. -
Jones-Shafroth Act
Puerto Rico citizens were granted U.S. citizenship as Puerto Rico was officially acquired as U.S. territory. U.S. citizenship was given to those who were born on or after April 11th, 1899. -
Emergency Quota Act
Europeans who were immigrating to the U.S. had to have a quota of 3%. This immigration law was primarily created to reduce the overall number of immigrants entering the U.S. -
The Married Women's Independent Nationality Act
The Expatriation Act that took away a woman's citizenship if she married a man who was not a U.S. citizen was repealed. Although, a woman in this predicament would have to petition the government to ensure that she was able to regain her citizenship status. If a woman's husband was not eligible for citizenship, she could be denied nonetheless. -
Ozawa v. United States
In the case of Ozawa, who was worthy of gaining U.S. citizenship, the Supreme Court ruled that he could not since he was of Asian descent. Ultimately, the court ruled "Asians as ineligible for naturalization because they are racially not 'white' regardless of their demonstrated acculturation and integration" (UT Austin, 2019).
Reference:
UT Austin. (2019). Ozawa v. United States (1922). Immigration History. Retrieved from https://immigrationhistory.org/item/takao-ozawa-v-united-states-1922/. -
Immigration Act of 1924
Southern and Eastern Europeans were declared to have failed at assimilating into the U.S. This act limited the number of Southern and Eastern Europeans to a 2% entry quota. All the while, Asian immigrants were still not allowed in/nor could they obtain U.S. citizenship. -
When Native American Citizenship was Recognized
Native Americans resided in American before the settlers from Europe had arrived, but they were not considered American citizens until "Congress enacted the Indian Citizenship Act, which granted citizenship to all Native Americans born in the U.S" (U.S. Government, n.d.). However, this did not include the right to vote.
Reference:
U.S. Government. (n.d.). Today in history - June 2: Indian Citizenship Act. The Library of Congress. Retrieved from https://www.loc.gov/item/today-in-history/june-02/. -
Women's Citizenship Fully Restored
For an American woman who married a man that was not a U.S. citizen/was not able to become one and could not regain her U.S. citizen status, she no longer had to worry about this issue once the 1940s rolled around as women were then allowed to marry non-U.S. citizens without the fear that their citizenship would be revoked or having to petition the government to win it back. -
The Nationality Act
The Nationality Act was the official process for U.S. citizenship; this act consisted of the "nationality laws of the United States into a comprehensive nationality code" (Ballotpedia, n.d.). Conditions and requirements for U.S. citizenship were outlined.
Reference:
Ballotpedia. (n.d.). Nationality Act of 1940. Ballotpedia. Retrieved from https://ballotpedia.org/Nationality_Act_of_1940. -
Alien Registration Act
This law stated it was a criminal offense to advocate overthrowing the American government. Additionally, "non-citizens had to register with the U.S. government so that the government would be able to track them and their un-American ideas which may or may not lead to the overthrow of the government." (Puloka, n.d.).
Reference:
Puloka, D. S. (n.d.). The Alien Registration Act of 1940. Retrieved from https://www.mckendree.edu/academics/scholars/issue13/puloka.htm. -
Executive Order 9066
This order was installed by President Franklin Roosevelt. It was set in place to remove any individuals who were perceived as a threat to America's national security. The Japanese population on the West coast was the targeted group due to Japan's enemy status to the U.S. during WW2. Japanese Americans, descendants, and immigrants were placed into internment camps. -
The Bracero Program
The Bracero Program allowed for Mexican men to legally come to America under short-term labor contracts. This did not lessen the discrimination they faced or fix the unfair wages they were often given. -
Magnuson Act
The repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act. Chinese immigrants were allowed to enter the country without facing immediate deportation. The Chinese immigrants were the first Asians to be allowed U.S. citizenship. -
The War Brides Act
Immigration laws would allow for American citizens to bring their foreign spouses and fiancés home. In most cases, this applied to the "Asian immigrants who were war brides to U.S. military personnel stationed in countries such as Japan, South Korea, Vietnam, and the Philippines" (UT Austin, 2019).
Reference:
UT Austin . (2019). War brides Acts (1945 & 1946). Immigration History. Retrieved from https://immigrationhistory.org/item/war-brides-acts-1945-1947/. -
The Immigration and Nationality Act
U.S. immigration laws were revised, Japanese immigrants were allowed to apply for/receive U.S. citizenship, "quotas were provided for all nations, racial restrictions on citizenship were abolished, and immigration enforcements expanded" (UT Austin, 2019). However, not all U.S. citizens had the same rights.
Reference:
UT Austin. (2019). The Mccarran-Walter Act. Immigration History. Retrieved from https://immigrationhistory.org/item/immigration-and-nationality-act-the-mccarran-walter-act/. -
Refugee Relief Act
The program granted refugees the right to receive a visa to stay in the U.S. Most refugees were Europeans fleeing communism. To receive a visa, they had to give their reason for applying and "receive sponsorship from a U.S. citizen who would ensure that they would not go on welfare in the United States" (UT Austin, 2019).
Reference:
UT Austin. (2019). Refugee Relief Act (1953). Immigration History. Retrieved from https://immigrationhistory.org/item/1953-refugee-relief-act/. -
Brown v. Topeka Board of Education
The Supreme Court ruled racial segregation as unconstitutional and a violation of American rights. This ruling ensured that African Americans (and other races) would be treated as fairly and properly as natural U.S. citizens should. -
The Cuban Refugee Program
Cubans were leaving their country in the masses due to Cuba's economic and political crisis. For the Cubans who fled their home country, they would be offered federal assistance in America. This was the first program in which the U.S. housed and assisted refugees from another country. -
The Civil Rights Act
The ban of civilian discrimination "on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national origin. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 is the nation's benchmark civil rights legislation" (DOL, n.d.). All U.S. citizens and inhabitants would be guaranteed to have equal American rights.
Reference:
DOL. (n.d.). Legal Highlight: The Civil Rights Act of 1964. United States Department of Labor. Retrieved from https://www.dol.gov/agencies/oasam/civil-rights-center/statutes/civil-rights-act-of-1964. -
The Immigration Act of 1965 (Hart-Celler Act)
The foundation of America's immigration principles that continue in modern America to this day. This law follows a "system of preferences for family reunification (75 percent), employment (20 percent), and refugees (5 percent) and for the first time capped immigration from the within Americas" (UT Austin, 2019).
Reference:
UT Austin. (2019). Immigration and Nationality act of 1965 . Immigration History. Retrieved from https://immigrationhistory.org/item/hart-celler-act/. -
Freedom Flight Airlifts for Cuban Refugees
The U.S. used airplanes to conduct "twice-daily flights between Cuba and Miami. Nearly 270,000 Cuban refugees were reunified with their families in the United States from December 1, 1965, to April 6, 1973" (University of Miami, n.d.).
Reference:
University of Miami . (n.d.). Exodus from Cuba. UM Libraries Digital Exhibits . Retrieved from https://scholar.library.miami.edu/digital/exhibits/show/freedom/exodus. -
Cuban Adjustment Act
Cuban refugees could apply for U.S. citizenship, "to qualify one must be a native or citizen of Cuba; have been inspected, be physically present in the United States for more than one year; and be admissible to the United States for lawful permanent residency" (Mira, 2016).
Reference:
Mira, I. (2016, September 27). Seven Things You Should Know About Cuban Adjustment. Retrieved from https://cliniclegal.org/resources/humanitarian-relief/seven-things-you-should-know-about-cuban-adjustment. -
The Refugee Act (Updated in 1980)
Created following the Vietnam War, the Vietnamese and Cambodians fled to the U.S. to receive refuge. The update "raised the annual ceiling for refugees from 17,400 to 50,000, created a process for reviewing and adjusting the refugee ceiling, and required annual consultation between Congress and the President" (National Archives Foundation, n.d.).
Reference:
National Archives Foundation. (2021). Refugee Act of 1980. Retrieved from https://www.archivesfoundation.org/documents/refugee-act-1980/. -
Immigration Reform and Control Act
This act was created to deal with the matters of illegal immigration in the USA. Congress created "a multi-pronged system that provided amnesty for established residents, increased border enforcement, enhanced requirements of employers, and expanded guest worker visa programs" (UT Austin, 2019).
Reference:
UT Austin. (2019). Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) (1986). Immigration History. Retrieved from https://immigrationhistory.org/item/1986-immigration-reform-and-control-act/. -
The Patriot Act and Post-911 Islamophobia
Following the events of September 11th, 2001, the United States would punish those who committed terrorist attacks. Since then, American citizens or those who reside in the U.S. are allowed to be spied on and monitored by the FBI. Islamic immigrants and those of the Muslim faith were especially at risk of being monitored for no apparent reason. Hate crimes against Muslim Americans, difficulties in achieving American citizenship, and discrimination are still problems they face to this day.
