-
Naturalization Act (1790)
The Naturalization Act of 1790 was the first law in the United States to establish criteria for citizenship through naturalization. It granted citizenship exclusively to "free white persons" of good character who had resided in the U.S. for at least two years. This law excluded all non-white individuals, including enslaved people, free black individuals, Native Americans, and immigrants from Asia, from becoming naturalized citizens. -
Alien and Sedition Acts (1798)
The Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798 comprised four laws targeting perceived threats to national security. U.S. citizens were not directly impacted by these laws. However, immigrants, especially those from France and other European countries, were discriminated against. These laws allowed the government to deport immigrants deemed dangerous, restricted speech critical of the government, and heightened scrutiny of those seen as politically radical. -
The Indian Removal Act (1830)
The Indian Removal Act of 1830 authorized the forced relocation of Native American tribes living east of the Mississippi River to lands west of the river. The negatively affected groups were the Native American tribes who faced displacement, hardship, and death during the removal, famously known as the "Trail of Tears." White settlers and land speculators were generally safe and benefited from gaining access to the vacated lands. -
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848)
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed in 1848, ended the Mexican-American War and ceded large territories from Mexico to the United States. U.S. settlers and the federal government were safe and benefited from the expansion. The treaty led to discrimination against Mexicans and Native Americans in the new U.S. territories, as they faced legal and social challenges in maintaining their rights and properties. -
Dred Scott v. Sandford Decision (1857)
The Dred Scott v. Sandford decision, issued by the U.S. Supreme Court, declared that African Americans, whether enslaved or free, could not be considered American citizens and thus had no right to sue in federal court. This ruling did not impact white Americans, as their citizenship and rights were affirmed. The decision discriminated against African Americans by denying them citizenship and legal protection, reinforcing their status as property rather than individuals with rights. -
Civil Rights Act (1866)
The Civil Rights Act of 1866 primarily protected African Americans, responding to the discriminatory "Black Codes" that restricted formerly enslaved people. It established birthright citizenship and equal legal protections but excluded Native Americans and did not address non-citizen immigrant groups, leaving their rights uncertain. -
The Fourteenth Amendment
The Fourteenth Amendment granted citizenship and equal protection to former slaves, African Americans, minority groups, and immigrants. It aimed to ensure full citizenship rights for all born or naturalized in the U.S. However, it initially excluded Native Americans not taxed and did not fully protect other marginalized groups from discrimination. -
The Burlingame Treaty (1868)
The Burlingame Treaty of 1868 allowed Chinese immigrants to enter the U.S. for work, particularly on the Transcontinental Railroad. Chinese immigrants faced significant discrimination and hostility in the U.S., including violence and legal restrictions. The treaty had little impact on the rights of non-Chinese immigrants and U.S. citizens. -
The Chinese Exclusion Act (1882)
The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was a U.S. federal law that specifically discriminated against Chinese immigrants. It prohibited the immigration of Chinese laborers and was the first law implemented to prevent a specific ethnic group from immigrating to the United States. -
Elk v. Wilkins (1884)
Elk v. Wilkins (1884) was a U.S. Supreme Court case that ruled Native Americans were not automatically citizens of the United States under the Fourteenth Amendment if they were born on reservations or maintained tribal affiliations. The decision discriminated against Native Americans by denying them citizenship and voting rights -
The Expatriation Act (1907)
The Act primarily focused on issues of dual nationality and the loss of U.S. citizenship. This law discriminated against American women by automatically stripping them of their citizenship if they married foreign men, while American men who married foreign women retained their citizenship.