-
Period: to
Enlightenment
-
"Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio"
John Scott Napier invents logarithms. His essay explains spherical trigonometry, Napier Bones, and Promptuary. Mathematics went through rapid growth. This is a practical application of math, or how it could be applied to real-world problems. -
"Novum Organum"
Francis Bacon's first part of his "Instauratio Magna." In this work he supports the inductive method.The inductive method was the thought process from moving from the particular to the general. Bacon argues for poeple to study the actual objects that can be known by our senses. This method helped create the idea of empiricism and the ideas of the scientific revolution. -
"Advancement of Learning"
Francis Bacon argues for the inductive method, for his readers to get rid of traditional beliefs and prejudices, for a new medium to look at the world, for a use of the acutual senses, and for the use of empiricism. He incisted that true knowledge was useful knowlege. This work supports the new inductive method of reasoning and the changing scientific views of the world. -
"The New Atlantis"
Francis Bacon's portrayal of a scientific utopia depicting people enjoying a perfect society because of their knowledge and command of nature. This work showed the usefulness of knowledge and was an influence in redirecting people's minds in Europe. -
"Discourse on Method"
Rene Descartes argued for the principle of systematic doubt, in which everything that could be doubted should be doubted. The famous "I think, therefore I exist" phrase comes directly from him. Descartes comes up with his "Cartesian dualism" that theorizes two kinds of reality, the "thinking substance" and the "extended substance." -
Louis XIV comes to power
His reign is the start of the Golden Age of France. During the Enlightenment, France becomes the model country to follow. France the most philosophes and enlightened thinkers at that time in Europe. -
"Leviathon"
Thomas Hobbes's essay on the role of government and people. Hobbes concludes that humans can't govern themselves, and are violent and chaotic in the "state of nature." Government and the people had a "social contract," in which the people surrendered their freedom of action to the ruler. This way the ruler could maintain order. The people can't question the governments' actions because this would open the way to chaos again. With this book, Hobbes became the leading advocate of absolutism. -
Royal Society of London
This society were comprised of leading thinkers in science who wanted to discuss the new empiricism and scientific progress. This society with other such societies around Europe institutionalized the field of science and engrained science into human civilization. -
"Law of Nature and Nations"
Samuel Pufendorf in this work, argued that sovereign states should work together for the "common good," even though they were not bound by any law or any authority. He suggested that there was a community of nations as well as community of individuals. All of these nations were still subordinate to natural reason and justice. This work is significant because it is the start of the principles of international law. -
"On Diplomatics"
The French Benedictine monk Jean Mabillon's work explains the new field of paleography, which is the deciphering, reading, dating, and authenticating manuscripts. This will be what scholars will use in their textual criticisms of the Bible and other important documents of history. This is significant because this advances the ideas of skepticism in Europe. -
"Letter on Toleration"
John Locke in his work, "Letter on Toleration," is a precursor to the enlightenment ideal of religious toleration. This work is significant because many thinkers expanded upon these ideals of religious toleration and Locke's advocation of an established church. -
"Historical and Critical Dictionary"
Pierre Bailey's work includes descriptions of many myths while suggesting that truth, what people would call truth, is merely opinions of humans.He makes the argument that people are prone to believe in almost everything, that many common "truths" were actually not credible. This "Dictionary" became a very well-cited book that future generations of skeptics would continue to use for inspirations. -
Louis XV
Louis XV comes to power in 1715. This is significant because there was now a chance for the old order of France's institutions to come back. But until the French Revolution, the 18th century was a period of absolutism checked an balanced by the privileged groups. In France, there was also a resurgence of aristocracy. So for France and indirectly the Enlightenment, This change of rule shows the limitations of reforms and the power of such enlightened despots like Louis XIV -
"Philosophical Letters on the English"
Voltaire, with this work and others, brought England into the international spotlight. Also, this work helped to popularize the ideas of Bacon, Newton, and Locke. Voltaire admired England's tolerance of religion, ideas, scientific inquiry, the press, and respect for philosophes. -
"The Spirit of Laws"
Montesquieu's great work, "The Spirit of Laws," outlines two main principles.
1. All forms of government varied according to climate and circumstances.
2. The idea of separation and balance of power, as in the principles of "checks and balances."
These ideas would be used in the American Revolution and many other revolutions of the Enlightenment.
This work was highly influential to Enlightenment thought and views. -
"Arts and Sciences"
Rouseau's "Arts and Sciences" gives the argument that "civilization was the source of much evil and that life in a "state of nature," were it only possible, would be much better." Rousseau also believes that all the best traits of humans are products of nature. -
"Age of Louis XIV"
Voltaire's work, "Age of Louis XIV," compliments the Sun King. This work is significant because it shows the view of some enlightened thinkers that enlightened despots can be beneficial to a country and nation. Monarchs in the Enlightenment wanted to be seen as enlightened, so they actually tried to reform their states. -
"Social Contract"
Rousseau's work seemed to contradict his famous views on nature. Rousseau argues that people in the "state of nature" were "brutish." Rousseau thought of the contract between the individual and the state as an agreement, in which the individual would surrender his/her own rights and fuse the individual wills into one "General Will" and agree to see the laws of this "General Will" as final. Social contract as well as a political contract. This work describes the principles of a Republic. -
"Wealth of Nations"
Adam Smith's "Wealth of Nations" is a very good example of enlightenment ideals applied to economy. Smith argues for a reduction of barriers that impede the growth of national wealth. His work outlines "the struggle for wealth and empire." This is arguing that to have wealth a nation does not need an empire. With this work, Smith became the philosopher of the free market and the prophet of free trade. -
The French Revolution
The French Revolution was an application of Enlightenment ideals, and it was a demand for almost purely democratic principles. The revolution was a clash over new tax policies that were results from participation in wars. The war in 1788 between France and Britain catalyzed the French Revolution. France's role in the Enlightenment was very important, not only with Louis XIV, but also with its eminent philosophes. It collapsing into revolution did much to hinder the spread of Enlightenment ideas.
