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English was becoming a matter of general use amongst the upper classes.
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The Scandinavian Invasions of England. The first is the period of early raids, beginning according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
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Noteworthy instances are the sacking of Lindisfarne and Jarrow
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The plundering of these two famous monasteries (Lindisfarne and Jarrow) the attacks apparently ceased for forty years, until renewed in 834 along the southern coast and in East Anglia
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The work of large armies and is marked by widespread plundering in all parts of the country and by extensive settlements. This new development was inaugurated by the arrival of a Danish fleet of 350 ships.
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A large Danish army plundered East Anglia and in 867 captured York.
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The East Anglian king, Edmund, met a cruel death in resisting the invaders.
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The assault upon Wessex began shortly before the accession of King Alfred
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An overwhelming victory for the English and a capitulation by the Danes
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The third stage of the Scandinavian incursions covers the period of political adjustment and assimilation
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The Treaty of Wedmore did not put an end to Alfred’s troubles. Guthrum was inclined to break faith, and there were fresh invasions from outside. But the situation slowly began to clear. Under Alfred’s son Edward the Elder.
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The right of the Northmen to occupy this part of France was recognized
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The English began a series of counterattacks that put the Danes on the defensive.
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One of the brilliant victories of the English in this period was Athelstan’s triumph in the battle of Brunanburh.
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A substantial Viking fleet, which may have been under the command of Olaf Tryggvason, who shortly became king of Norway, was joined by Svein, king of Denmark, in a new attack on London.
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Æthelred the Unready had married a Norman wife and, when driven into exile by the Danes, took refuge with his brother-in-law, the duke of Normandy.
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Finally Svein determined to make himself king of the country. Supported by his son Cnut, he crowned a series of victories in different parts of England by driving Æthelred, the English king, into exile and seizing the throne.
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The Danish line died out and Edward, known as the Confessor, was restored to the throne from which his father had been driven, he brought with him a number of his Norman friends, enriched them, and gave them important places in the government.
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After a reign of twenty-four years, Edward the Confessor died childless, England was again faced with the choice of a successor.
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William was crowned king of England.
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Ecclesiastics, it would seem, sometimes entered upon their office accompanied by an armed band of supporters. Turold, who became abbot of Peterborough
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The Norman and English estates of William Fitz Osbern were divided in this way at his death
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Only one of the twelve earls in England was an Englishman, and he was executed four years later.
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Wulfstan brought about some sort of spiritual federation between the monks of Worcester and six other English monasteries
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Thirteen of the twenty-one abbots who signed the decrees of the Council of London were English; twelve years later their number had been reduced to three.
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160 armed Frenchmen took possession of Turold’s monastery; and Thurston, appointed abbot of Glastonbury
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Henry I was there for a total of more than seventeen out of the thirty-five years of his reign in France
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That English survived for a considerable time in some monasteries is evident from the fact that at Peterborough the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle was continued until 1154
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King john married Isabel of Angouleme, she was at the time formally betrothed to Hugh of Lusignan
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Isabel of Angouleme, crowned at Westminster Abbey
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Phillip saw in the situation an opportunity to embarrass his most irritating vassal. He summoned John to appear before his court at Paris, answer the charges against him, and submit to the judgment of his peers
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The first link in the chain binding England to the continent was broken when King John lost Normandy.
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Rouen surrendered, and Normandy was lost to the English crown.
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The king of France announced that he had confiscated the lands of several great barons, including the earls of Warenne, Arundel, Leicester, and Clare, and of all those knights who had their abode in England.
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The action of Simon de Montfort in 1229 must have had many parallels.
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Henry III married Eleanor of providence, brought a 2nd stream of foreigners to England.
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After 1250 there was no reason for the nobility of England to consider itself anything but English. The most valid reason for its use of French was gone.
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Rise of the craftsments and merchant class.
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English was important again. French is treated as foreign language.
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The Battle of Crécy took place on 26 August 1346 in northern France between a French army commanded by King Philip VI and an English army led by King Edward III
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The black death spread rapidly over the rest of the
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The army of King Edward III was led by his son, the valiant Edward the "Black Prince"
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The Black Prince led the English to major victories over the French. At the battle of Poitiers, the Black Prince captured King John II, the current King of France.
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Born the outstanding english poet Geoffrey Chaucer, his The Canterbury Tales ranks as one of the greatest poetic works in english.
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Adoption of English for records of towns and guilds.
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In the reign of Henry V England again enjoyed a brief period of success, notably in the victory against great odds at Agincourt.
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Henry V invaded France and won the decisive battle at Agincourt where with only around 6,000 soldiers he defeated a much larger French force of around 25,000
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The exploits of Joan of Arc, a young peasant girl by the name of Joan of Arc took leadership of the French army. She claimed to have seen a vision from God. She led the French to a victory at Orleans.
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The French were inspired by Joan of Arc's leadership and sacrifice. They continued to fight back. They pushed the English army out of France taking Bordeaux signaling the end of the Hundred Years War.
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Modern languages faced problems and first attempts of english rules.
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Thomas Smith made the first attempt of rule - ABC for children.
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Thomas Smith makes the second attempt of rule - Dialogue the correct and emended writing of english language.
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William Bullokar made the third attempt of rule - Amendment of orthography for english speech.
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Proposals for an english academy.
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Grammatica Linguae Anglicanae
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Scientific interests improved the english language.
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Born Jonathan Swift made a proposal for Correcting, Improving and Ascertaining the English Tongue.
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Refine and fix of the english language
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The settlers in New England before 1700, 1,281 have been traced to their source in England, and for Virginia during the same period the English homes have been found for 637.
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Colonists before 1700 came from the south of England, especially the southeast.
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Born Samuel Johnson, he invoking the “English liberty"
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Practical grammar of the english tongue
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Dictionary of english language.
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British Education.
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Lexicographer and spelling reformer
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The rudiments of english grammar.
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Philosophy of rhetoric
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Royal magazine proposed the formation of an academy
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Theory of the reason for the uniformity of American English by John Witherspoon- they move frequently from place to place, he defined it as “a use of phrases or terms, or a construction of sentences, even among persons of rank and education, different from the use of the same terms or phrases, or the construction of similar sentences in Great-Britain.”
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The various modifications of the English language in the United States were all “gross corruptions” was a belief vigorously expressed by an anonymous writer of 1800 in The Monthly Magazine and American Review.
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The first dictionary of Americanisms was published in 1816 by John Pickering under the title A Vocabulary, or Collection of Words and Phrases which have been supposed to be Peculiar to the United States of America.
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Noah Webster replied in a published Letter to the Honorable John Pickering on the Subject of His Vocabulary (1817). “With regard to the general principle”.
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Theory of the reason for the uniformity of American English by Isaac Candler - Americans are so accustomed to distance that they disregard it.
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The United States having been populated from different parts of England and Ireland, the peculiarities of the various districts have in a great measure ceased. As pronunciation is concerned, the mass of people speak better English, than the mass of people in England. This I know will startle some, but its correctness will become manifest when I state that in no part, except in those occupied by the descendants of the Dutch and German settlers, is any unintelligible jargon in vogue[...]
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The American dictionary of the English language was published.
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The famous “Index Expurgatorius” of William Cullen Bryant It is a list of words that he excluded from the New York Evening Post and that seems to have grown up gradually during the years
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An unknown writer in the Southern Literary Messenger looked forward to the time when “we shall no longer see such a term as firstly in a work on metaphysics, nor hear such a double adverb as illy on the floor of Congress—no longer hear of an event’s transpiring, before it has become public, nor of an argument being predicated on such and such facts.”
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It is well known that the word "talented" has been disliked by many in England, although it was coined in 1840 by an Englishman.
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The discovery of gold in California resulted in such a rush to the gold fields that in 1849 the 2,000 Americans that constituted the population in February had become 53,000
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A Dictionary of Americanisms was published in 1848 by John R.Bartlett and greatly enlarged in a second edition of 1859.
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At a meeting of the Philological Society in London a committee was appointed to collect words not in the dictionaries, with a view to publishing a supplement to them.
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Expansion of 13 colonies. Immigrants Ireland and Germany.
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In order to provide the machinery for the printing of this material by subscription, Furnivall founded the Early English Text Society.
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James Russell Lowell published in book form the Second Series of The Biglow Papers and supplied it with a lengthy introduction.
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Every-Day English (1880) conformity to the purist ideal and acceptance of the English standard of usage became practically synonymous.
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Richard Grant A purist of a rather extreme type was Richard Grant White, in his books called Words and Their Uses and Every-Day English conformity to the purist ideal and acceptance of the English standard of usage became practically synonymous.
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A formal agreement was entered into with the Oxford University Press whereby this important publishing house was to finance and publish the society’s dictionary and Murray was to be its editor.
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Founded Buffalo Bill’s wild west show.
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Interest in American dialects led to the formation in 1889 of the American Dialect Society, which published a journal called Dialect Notes
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Forced inmigration of Africans (25 million)
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Coleridge objected to “that vile and barbarous word, talented,” adding, “Most of these pieces of slang come from America.” Mencken tells us that scientists were denounced as “an ignoble Americanism” in 1890.
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H. L. Mencken published a book of nearly 500 pages which he called The American Language. This contained a large amount of entertaining and valuable material presented in a popular way and had the effect of stimulating a wider interest in the subject.
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A group of Americans proposed that some plan of cooperation between England and America be devised, and a committee was appointed in England to consider the question.
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George P. Krapp published the first comprehensive and scholarly treatment of American English in his two-volume work The English Language in America.
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The proposal for an American atlas was made in 1928 at a meeting of the Modern Language Association.
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Since the 1930s, investigations for the Linguistic Atlas have identified dialect areas within the old General American area and have prompted a repudiation of this “prescientific concept.”
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With the support of the American Council of Learned Societies, work of the Atlas was begun in 1931 under the direction of Professor Hans Kurath of the University of Michigan.
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The publication in 1933 of Bloomfield’s book Language, the most important work on general linguistics in the first half of the twentieth century, marked a turning point in American linguistic scholarship.
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There have been prepared and published at the University of Chicago a dictionary of American English on Historical Principles, edited by Sir William Craigie and James R. Hulbert
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The most important of the undertakings designed to record the characteristics of American speech is the Linguistic Atlas of the United States and Canada, publication of which began in 1939.
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Two supplements were published about The American Language, both larger than the original book.
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Professor Hans Kurath published a study of the first importance, A Word Geography of the Eastern United States.
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There have been prepared and published at the University of Chicago a dictionary of Americanisms, on Historical Principles, the work of Mitford M. Mathews.
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Noam Chomsky presented a radically different model of language in a thin, technical book entitled Syntactic Structures.
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In studies of African American Vernacular English, controversy between traditional dialectologists and creole scholars centered on the extent to which linguistic features could be traced either to British English or to creole origins.
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Participants in the debate often viewed their discipline as parallel to the natural sciences in its pattern of advancement, and Chomsky’s model was seen as a “paradigm change” in the sense described by Thomas S. Kuhn.
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When the Merriam Company published Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, an outpouring of reviews ignored the considerable merits of the dictionary to criticize its restraint in legislating on matters of usage.
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the major linguistic theories have developed in a general direction of convergence, at least to the extent that some form of generative grammar is the overwhelmingly preferred orientation for any discussion of theoretical syntax and phonology.
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The efforts to eliminate sexism from English, though having met with resistance, have been more successful than most attempts at reform. Published
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The Dictionary of American Regional English under the editorship of Frederic G. Cassidy achieves an American dictionary comparable with Joseph Wright’s English Dialect Dictionary and provides an invaluable account of American dialects.
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In its revised forms in Chomsky’s Aspects of the Theory of Syntax and Lectures on Government and Binding: The Pisa Lectures it has become the most influential system of linguistic description in the second half of the twentieth century, and it has had a significant effect on the related disciplines of psychology and sociology, as well as on the teaching of grammar in the schools.
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