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Britain increased its control of India through the East India Company
Initially, English traders were welcomed by the Mughal rulers as both sides realised there would be benefits for each of them if they traded. In exchange for trading rights, the English brought European products to India. The colonial economy was based on the extraction of resources and wealth from India, this extractive relationship is reproduced in modern practices where data is treated as a resource to be mined and exploited. -
The Government of India Act was passed: British government directly ruled India, and it became known as the British Raj
Indian producers could export goods directly to other countries but Britain collected the payments, hampering India's ability to import machinery and technology needed for modernisation. Britain compounded India’s export surplus earnings at a 5% interest rate. Whilst India registered globally as the 2nd largest export surplus earnings for 3 decades before 1929, it had no increase in per capita income. India's income collapsed by half and tens of millions died needlessly of policy-induced famine. -
The British introduced systematic documentation practises and passed the Indian Penal Code and the Code of Criminal Procedure
The use of census data and identity documents aimed to better understand and control the population. These laws enabled the authorities to collect data on criminal activities and individuals and detain and monitor individuals without the need for a formal trial. -
East India Company began collecting taxes in India
After taking control of the subcontinent and establishing a monopoly over Indian trade the East India Company began collecting taxes in India, using a portion of those revenues (about a third) to fund the purchase of Indian goods for British use. Instead of paying for Indian goods out of their pocket, British traders acquired them for free, “buying” from peasants and weavers using money that had just been taken from them. -
The British colonial administration passed the Criminal Tribes Act of 1871
This allowed for the registration and monitoring of communities deemed "habitually criminal," enacting the colonial government to keep a close watch on these groups, restricting their movements and activities. -
The Information Technology Act was enacted
This provided legal framework for electronic governance and commerce. However the integration of India's IT and outsourcing industries into the global economy was facilitated by their use of the English Language as most IT educational programs and literature on IT needed to keep up with developments use English, making English necessary for Indian IT professionals' ability to interact with their major global market that are English-speaking countries -
The National e-Governance Plan (NeGP) was launched
This made all government services accessible to the common man. -
Aadhaar the world's largest biometric ID system was introduced
This provided a unique identity to every Indian resident. The surveillance practises established during the colonial period have had a lasting impact on India's approach to data collection and privacy. The emphasis on documentation and monitoring has influenced contemporary policies and practises in such areas as national security and law enforcement that can be seen today. -
The Digital India Initiative launched
This built onto the foundations laid during colonisation to transform India into a digitally empowered society and knowledge economy, seeing government and the private sector rushing to spread high-speed connectivity across the country and provide the hardware and services to put Indian consumers and businesses. However, the Adhaar system has raised concerns about privacy and surveillance as the centralised collection of biometric data makes it a potent tool for surveillance. -
Introduction of the Unified Payments Interface (UPI)
This revolutionised digital payments in India, leading to a surge in digital transactions and payment methods. -
Right to Privacy was recognised as a Human Right by the Supreme Court of India
As entrenched in Article 21 [Right to Life & Liberty] of the Constitution of India -
National Digital Health Mission launched to create a digital health ecosystem
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India became the world's second-largest internet market behind China with over 700 million internet users
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Government of India published the Digital Personal Data Protection Act
This introduced several compliances with respect to the collection, processing, storage and transfer of digital personal data, however it wasn't enacted until 5 years after the UK's, and it left the collection and handling of non-personal data currently unregulated in India. As India's current legal and administrative frameworks are rooted in the colonial era, data protection laws lack robust privacy protections that make it easier for both state and private entities to exploit personal data. -
The UPI network processed over 14 billion transactions in a single month
During colonisation, the British established a highly centralised administrative system in India, which has persisted post-independence and it makes it easy for modern governments to implement widespread surveillance measures. The influence of global tech giants which often operate on principles of surveillance capitalism has been significant in India, seeing these companies operate with minimal regulatory oversight, exploiting gaps in India's data protection laws. -
India aims to achieve a trillion-dollar digital economy, leveraging advancements in AI, IoT and blockchain technologies.
India’s digital consumer base is the 2nd largest in the world and growing at the 2nd fastest rate among major economies. Half the potential economic value of $1 trillion in 2025 could come from new digital ecosystems in diverse sectors. The inclusive digital model is narrowing India's digital divide, but rural and marginalised communities with access to digital technologies are more vulnerable to exploitation and the future of India's Digital vulnerability still faces significant threats. -
How Post-independence economic policies, rooted in colonial legacies have influenced the future of India's digital vulnerability
The prioritisation of rapid development and economic growth over privacy and data protection has led to a substantial digital footprint, technical vulnerabilities, and recent surges in cyber-attacks. India is the most targeted country globally and over 46% of businesses still operate on traditional legacy systems. These aged technologies are no longer supported by their vendors, presenting cybersecurity gaps, loopholes and vulnerabilities that hackers exploit to gain entry to corporate networks.