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natural disasters and famines
China has a history of natural disasters, including floods, droughts, earthquakes, and typhoons, which have caused significant loss of life and economic damage throughout its history. Despite advancements in disaster preparedness and response, China continues to face challenges in mitigating the impact of natural disasters, exacerbated by factors such as rapid urbanization, environmental degradation, and climate change. -
spheres of influence late 19th century
The late 19th century saw a significant expansion of spheres of influence, in Asia, with European powers such as Britain, France, Germany, Russia seeking to carve out exclusive zones of economic and political influence. The carving up of China into spheres of influence by Western powers and Japan through a series of unequal treaties and concessions, such as the Treaty of Nanking and the Treaty of Tientsin , embody this trend, leading to foreign control over Chinese ports, trade, and territories -
unequal treaties & extraterritoriality
Unequal treaties, like those imposed on China in the 19th century, heavily favored Western powers, granting them economic and territorial advantages.
Extraterritoriality, a provision within these treaties, exempted foreigners from local laws, eroding China's sovereignty and legal authority.
These arrangements fueled resentment among the Chinese populace and became symbols of Western imperialism and China's perceived weakness. -
hundred days' reform 1898
Occurring in 1898, the Hundred Days' Reform was a short-lived but ambitious modernization effort in late Qing China.
Spearheaded by Emperor Guangxu and reformist intellectuals, it aimed to modernize China's political, educational, and military systems.
Despite its progressive agenda, the reform movement faced fierce opposition from conservative forces within the imperial court, leading to its abrupt termination and the subsequent persecution of its leaders. -
opium wars 1839-1842
Opium Wars 1839-42 were a series of armed conflicts between China and Western powers, primarily Britain, over the lucrative opium trade. The wars resulted in humiliating defeats for China and the signing of unequal treaties, such as the Treaty of Nanking, which ceded Hong Kong to Britain and opened several Chinese ports to foreign trade. The second war Britain and France against China. -
corruption and mismanagment
Corruption in China has been a long-standing issue, with cases ranging from low-level bribery to high-level embezzlement and nepotism within the government and state-owned enterprises. The Chinese government has implemented anti-corruption campaigns, such as President Xi Jinping's extensive crackdown on graft starting in 2012, targeting both "tigers" (high-ranking officials) and "flies" (lower-level bureaucrats). Also aging populations that threaten future growth prospects.