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Walnut Street Jail is Converted to a Penitentiary
The Walnut Street Jail was converted to a penitentiary to fit the corrections era and the Pennsylvania model. This conversion created solitary confinement cells for prisoners so that they could think about their actions. Solitary confinement and rehabilitation were encouraged here and throughout this era. -
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Penitentiary Era
The penitentiary era is characterized by rehabilitation and deterrence. In this era, the Pennsylvania Model was most popular, which consisted of solitary confinement for prisoners. This model was created by the Quakers and looked to get rid of corporal punishment (whipping and violence). However, after studies were done people realized this was actually doing more harm than good to inmates' minds and it was very costly, so the Pennsylvania system was replaced with the Auburn system around 1825. -
Auburn Prison Opened
Auburn Prison in New York opened in 1819 as a maximum-security prison. Auburn prison followed the Pennsylvania model until around 1824/1825. The photo attached is of the South Wing in Auburn Prison. -
Auburn Prison Abandons Pennsylvania System
After a 3-year experiment, officials realized they needed to steer away from the Pennsylvania System. The Auburn system is pretty much the counterpart to the Pennsylvania System. Instead of 24/7 solitary confinement, the prisoners had group time during the day where they worked in workshops and then were in solitary confinement at night. They weren't allowed to speak to each other during the day. They relied on whipping and hard labor to maintain silence within the prison. -
Solitary Confinement Experiment Began
On Christmas Day and experiment launched at Auburn Prison in New York. 83 men were confined in small solitary cells and eventually released in 1823 and 1824. "Five...had died, one went insane, another attempted suicide, and the others became 'seriously demoralized'. Because of how horrific the experiment was, most of the survivors were pardoned. After seeing how badly this went, the Auburn prison started to turn away from the Pennsylvania System onto a new, original system - the Auburn System. -
Rising Success of Auburn System
After the solitary confinement experiment, Reverend Louis Dwight (prisoner reformer and leader of Prison Discipline Society of Boston) fought for the Auburn system, talking about the better conditions it had for the inmates and its lower cost. By 1825 the Auburn System became so successful that ANOTHER prison in Sing Sing was going to build and modeled after the Auburn prison. -
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Mass Prison Era
Mass Prison era can be characterized by the incapacitation of prisoners and deterrence. In the last era, the Pennsylvania Model was used but once studies were conducted, the New York Prison, AUburn Prison, had switched to what they called the Auburn System. In the Auburn System, prisoners were only held in solitary confinement at night. During the day they would be apart of group workshops, however they weren't allowed to talk. Whippings and hard labor helped make sure they didn't speak. -
Western State Penitentiary Opened
The photo I included is the actual inmate record book. I found it on a really cool website that showed other records of inmates. This prison is located in Pittsburg, PA and stayed in operation until 2017. This jail comes in under the Mass Prison Era but it still followed the Pennsylvania model of the previous era's prisons.
[link: https://digitalarchives.powerlibrary.org/psa/islandora/object/psa%3A537669?overlay_query=RELS_EXT_isMemberOfCollection_uri_ms%3A%22info%3Afedora/psa%3Adrpa1826-76%22] -
Eastern State Penitentiary Opened
The Eastern State Penitentiary opened in 1829 and followed the Pennsylvania Model created by the Quakers in earlier years. The prison remained open until 1971. The photo included is of the solitary confinement cells but in present-day condition. You can clearly see how small they were. -
First Female Prisoner at Eastern State Pen.
I think this is something important to note because sometimes we can forget women were imprisoned too and, especially at this time, there wasn't any gender responsiveness, so women were clumped together with men. While I couldn't find her name or a photo, I included a poster the sign has up of most notable women who were sentenced there. -
French Magistrates Visit America
Alexis de Tocqueville and Gustave de Beaumont come to America (from France). They observed American prisons and they came up with something they believe heavily affected prisoners - "contamination". Contamination among prisoners is a scenario where they would have an undesirable effect on one another. The photo included is of Gustave. -
Mechanics Petition Cheap Prison Labor
Mechanics in New York petitioned the extremely low wages that prisons were paying. Because of the low wages, these mechanics weren't getting as much business. In Advocating the Man by Joshua R. Greenberg, the author says that because of these low wages, many mechanics had to resort to beggary. -
System Of Marks Developed
Captain Alex Maconochie, also known as the "father of parole" was the warden of Norfolk Island (Australia) who created a marks system for inmates that inspired America. The system would allow inmates to be released early once they had reached so many marks. You earn marks from good behavior and you lose them from bad behavior. He thought of this because of how bad the conditions were in the prisons, he created a way to let the prisoners out on their own accord. -
Irish System Inspires Hubbell
Gaylord Hubbel visited Great Britain to look at prisons there and take away ideas. He was pleasantly surprised by the Irish system and suggested indeterminant sentences be imposed here in America. He got lots of support from the New York Prison Association (NYPA) and they called for a reform in prisons based on early release. -
First National Prison Association
The National Prison Association had its first conference ever in Ohio. At this meeting, they adopted a Declaration of Principles that called for a replacement of "punishment" with the word reformation, as the goal of sentencing imprisonment. This marked a big turning point from the Mass Prison Era to the Reformatory Era. -
Reformatory Style Emerged
There was a lot of tension between the Auburn System and the Pennsylvania System and the reformatory style cut the tension. The photo shown is of a drawing of Elmira Reformatory. Schooling was required in the reformatory style, which is going on in this drawing. -
Elmira Reformatory Opened
The Elmira Reformatory was the first adult reformatory to open. Located in Elmira, NY, the reformatory, now known as Elmira Correction Facility, is a maximum-security prison. Back when it first opened, indeterminant sentencing was popular, so inmates could work towards early release through good behavior. Within the reformatory, education was mandatory and different trades programs were available. -
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Reformatory Era
The reformatory era can be characterized by rehabilitation. During this era, the reformatory style emerged, which was based on indeterminate sentencing. Alexander Maconochie, who was a warden in Australia at the time, had an influence on this era. He was even named "the father of parole" after creating his system of marks, where inmates can earn freedom based on behavior. Another influential person was Gaylor Hubbell, who studied prisons in Great Britain and brought some ideas back to the US. -
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Industrial Era
This era can be characterized by the incapacitation and restoration efforts. There were 6 different kinds of inmate labor systems, and they all provided cheap labor from inmates. Downsouth more farming work was done by prisoners because the Civil War had just ended and the slaves were freed, leaving farmers with no workers. Many people saw prisoners as "the new slaves". This cheap labor rivaled with regular industry workers, which played a role in ending this era of cheap prison labor. -
Chain Gangs Emerged
This photo attached was taken in 1903 of juvenile inmates As you can see all of the inmates shown in the photo are African American. People often called this era the new slavery, since it occurred not too long after the civil war had ended. Having prisoners do work helped boost the economy because of how cheap the labor was. Chain Gangs were an example of the "public works" system of inmate labor. -
License Plate Made in Prisons
In the 1920s, prisoners were making license plates.
Here is a more recent photo of prisoners making license plates. -
Hawes-Cooper Act
The Hawes-Cooper Convict Labor Act mandated that whatever prison goods were being imported from one state to another had to comply with that state's regulations. This helped states stop interstate to help laborers not serving time who couldn't offer such cheap labor and goods. -
Alcatraz Opened (VIDEO)
Alcatraz was a maximum-security prison in San Francisco Bay. It was on an island completely by itself. It still stands today but it shut down in 1963 because it was too expensive to continue to operate. Because Alcatraz was on an island in San Francisco Bay, it was almost impossible to escape. No one has successfully escaped, however, two inmates went missing after trying to escape. They still have not been found.
[https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/11-966-video 0:30 - 0:50] -
Ashurst-Sumners Act
This act completely stopped interstate trading of goods made within prison. -
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Punitive Era
This era can be characterized by retribution. Many people thought that prisoners had to "pay" for what they've done and that they owed a debt to society. During this era, the public's view on prisoners was "out of sight, out of mind", they weren't worried about them because they were locked away. Because of the terrible conditions and treatment, no treatment really, many prisoners went "stir crazy" and a surge of riots and escape attempts happened during this era. Alcatraz is a notable prison. -
Folsom Escape Attempt
On this day, a guard and warden at Folsom State Prison were attacked by 7 inmates. During this era, a lot of riots and escape attempts were made because the prisoners were frustrated. In this escape attempt, the guard died a few days after the attack by the prisoners and the warden died on site. Shanks were used and a prison-made gun was found as well. Two prisoners were shot and killed and the other five were sentenced to death and eventually were executed in the gas chamber the prison used. -
Treatment Studies Begin
Robert Martinson and his colleagues conducted several studies to see which programs and treatments for prisoners were most effective in reducing recidivism rates, but he found that none were as successful as they need to be. His findings influenced the "nothing-works doctrine" that said there is no way to rehabilitate offenders. This influenced new mandatory minimum sentences and truth in sentencing laws. His studies ended in 1967. -
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Treatment Era
This era can be characterized by rehabilitation. This era was based on the medical model which implied that the offender was sick, and inmates were referred to as "patients" or "clients" in this era. Shock therapy, aversion therapy, and behavior modification were just some of the treatments that occurred during this time. Prisoners wanted to refuse treatment which surged a look at prisoners' rights. That along with researchers not sure if the treatment actually worked, ended this era. -
Minimum Standards for Prisoners
Because of how bad prison environments were, the American Prison Association (who changed their name to American Correctional Association) created the United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners, also known as the Mandela Rules. The rules address standards of hygiene, bedding, the use of restraints, etc.
The photo included is of the terrible prison conditions in America prior to these standards. -
Experimental Guidance Center
The Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) opened three experimental Pre-Release Guidance Centers in New York, Los Angeles, and Chicago to see how they would go. These guidance centers were focused on the youth in crime.
The image is of James V. Bennett. This was the director of the BOP at the time. -
Prisoner Rehabilitation Act of 1965
The Prisoner Rehab Act of 1965 allowed for furloughs, work-release programs, and community treatment centers for adult prisoners. A Furlough is a leave of absence, usually, prisoners can receive this if a loved one has died, and they have to have good behavior and a low flight risk. This Act really kicked the Community-Based Era into gear.
The photo attached is a prisoner on a work-release program working at his job at Debbie's Diner in Illinois. -
First PREP
In March of 1966, the Department of Corrections launched their first work-release programs called "Pre-Release Employment Programs", or PREP. The outcome they had hoped for was lower recidivism rates by giving the prisoners experience in work before they were released back into the community.
The photo is of a half-way house. -
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Community-Based Era
This era can be characterized by community involvement. During this era, there was an effort to transition from institutionalization to institutionalization, or incarceration. Group homes were opening and work-release programs were being implemented. This allowed prisoners to get adjusted to society and have some work experience. Their hopes in this were to reduce recidivism rates. However, people became more and more scared of offenders in the community, which led to the end of this era. -
Refusal of Treatment
In July 1972 a group of prisoners in Marion, Illinois banded together and protested the treatment they were given. They were given shock therapy, aversion therapy (for things like homosexuality and drug abuse), and psychosurgery. Once they rose up they received support from the National Prison Project. Prior to this, there wasn't much recognition of the prisoner's rights to refuse treatment.
The photo is the Control Unit in the Marion Prison in Illinois. -
Reform Schools Closed in MA
In 1972, reform schools were closing in MA and being turned into group homes. This shows a direct change from the earlier Reformatory and Treatment Eras to the now Community-Based Era. Group homes were almost like motels. They were more for juveniles, it gave them a place to stay and allowed them to stay in the community and work and still be apart of society, that is what this era is about. This was one step toward institutionalization.
The photo I included is a news article of the closings. -
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Warehousing Era
This era can be characterized by incapacitation. During this era, the Tough on Crime and War on Drugs initiatives were happening, which drove up prison populations. In the previous era, people were unsatisfied with our corrections system, so in this era, all hope of rehab is gone and the main goal is to deter crime and incapacitate offenders. In the 1970s there was even a "nothing works doctrine" saying that there is no treatment to rehabilitate offenders. This influenced this era. -
Tent Cities in Tuscan, Arizona
Because of overcrowding and large prison populations, prisons had to resort to "tent cities" at Tuscan prison as well as some minimum security prisons. They used Quonset huts that the United States military was previously using for storage. Within the huts, the prisoners created recreational rooms, hangout spaces, sleeping spaces, etc. They are also called "tin cans" because of their shape and material.
The image attached is of a Quonset Hut. -
Truth in Sentencing Laws
The first state to pass a Truth in Sentencing Law is Washington State. Truth in sentencing laws requires offenders to serve.a substantial portion of their given sentence before they are eligible for parole or early release. Good time, time earned, and parole board releases are abolished and done away with from truth in sentencing.
The photo added is a political cartoon about Truth in Sentencing. -
Anti Drug Abuse Act
This act ultimately turned the corrections system away from rehabilitation and toward punishment. This act required harsh mandatory minimum sentencing for drug crimes, even for first-time offenders. This was apart of the "War on Drugs" and contributed to the rising prison population.
The photo is a political cartoon showing how severe drug charges are compared to other charges. -
Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act (VIDEO)
This act provided extra funding to prisons that extended their truth in sentencing laws to 85% time served. It also provided funding for police presence and to address disorder and crime in the community. This also created the three-strikes law, where if you were in prison three times, you get a life sentence.
Here is the video of President Clinton signing the bill.
[Link: https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/inside-controversial-1994-crime-bill-plaguing-clinton-campaign/story?id=38313757] -
Virginia Getting Tougher on Crime (VIDEO)
In 1995, Virginia abolished parole and even increased sentences by 700%. Issues with this parole ban include overcrowded prisons, an aging population, and inequality of sentencing. Letting geriatric offenders out on parole or early release is a heavily debated topic but it isn't even possible in Alabama. Geriatric offenders cost up to double what younger offenders cost.
Here is a video where the Economist talks about older prison inmates.
[Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jXnQz2CqzYg] -
Alamaba Brings Back Chain Gangs (VIDEO)
Alabama reestablishes chain gangs, and other states follow suit. Inmates can serve up to 90 days in a chain gang and work 12 hour days every day. They would do community service type acts such as picking up trash off the side of the road.
Here is an episode of something I have never heard of before - Chain Gang Girls. It is a modern-day female chain gang in Arizona. It is the only female chain gang in America.
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Doy9LbFlvcM -
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Just Deserts Era
During this era, there was an emphasis on individual responsibility, and the goal of incarceration went back to punishment. Chain gangs made a comeback in Alabama and parole was abolished in Virginia which showed that correction systems were "getting tough" on crime. Many legislatures influence this era like the three-strike law and mandatory minimum sentences as well as truth in sentencing laws. These allowed sentences to be long and harsh. -
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Evidence Based Era
This era is based on social science, seeing what works and what doesn't. There are debates on things like locking up nonviolent offenders and geriatric offenders. The Great Recession in 2001 forced states to cut back on spending, so they reassessed prison spending. In this era, studies are being conducted to show the effectiveness of incarceration and weigh it against the large costs. Is it worth it? Are there other options? This era is about saving money and doing what makes sense. -
First Step Act of 2018 (VIDEO)
The first step act of 2018 overall works on sentencing reform. It cuts down the three-strikes-law of life in prison after three offenses to 25 years at a minimum. It also allows judges to have more of a say in nonviolent drug charges so the sentences are over-bearing (however that does leave room for inequality in sentencing).
Here is a video of Trump signing and talking about the bill.
Link: [https://www.c-span.org/video/?456225-1/president-trump-signs-step-juvenile-justice-reform-acts]
