-
1942 - 1946 $2 billion
Program of research and development undertaken during World War II to produce the first nuclear weapons -
Committee of National Liberation (Lublin Committee) establishd July 1944
Uk supported London Poles but did not opposed Lublin to preserve Grand Alliance -
-
Agreed full collaboration between US and British in developing tube alloys for military and commercial purposes should continue after defeat of Japan, unless terminated by joint agreement
-
secret informal agreement - spheres of influence
90%Romaina USSR
90%Greece Britain - Suez Canal
50/50 Hungary and Yugoslavia
75%Bulgaria -
Ussr invaded Jan 1944
annexed east and destroyed Polish Home Army
Lublin Committee - provisional govt -
President Shigeru Yoshida - strategy adopted after defeat
restore Japan's sovereignty and provide security for Japan in return for US troops on Japanese territory
Reconstructing Japan's domestic economy while relying heavily on the security alliance with the United States -
Japanese ended coalition with French
French ran the country but profits went to the Japanese French govt determined to regain full control of Vietnam
British army
Nov 1946- French bombarded norther port go Pittong killing 8000 Vietnamese
US - neutral -
permanent in US govt 1945
founded 1938 Investigated communist infiltration, patriotism and political affiliations of Hollywood filmmakers Hollywood Ten: 10 members of Hollywood industry who denounced tactics employed by HUAC
Imprisoned and hundreds more blacklisted
People were scared of having anything to do with them -
UN, Declaration of Liberated European – USA supported giving emergency relief to countries in Europe - Poland
Roosevelt believed Stalin and him had special relationship -
Truman's national security policy:
Usa - sufficient influence in West Europe + USA - collective Western defence strategy - Germany included
Retain influence in Asia
Containment - fundamental
Usa must retain a strong nuclear arsenal and conventional forces in order to deter
Eisenhower rejected Truman's commitment to major expansion of USA's conventional forces - containment was limited -
-
End of WW2
-
June 1945 Mikolajczyk - ex Pol on London
contained both parties
Stalin - multi-party elections with intent of communism - rigged
Mikolajczyk resigned -
Agreed at Yalta
Intention of keeping peace after WW2 - situated in New York
communist states limited - only USSR and Poland -
17th July – 2nd August
Germany- 4Ds, USSR reparations +25% from Western Zones
reaffirm Yalta -
Germany- 4Ds, USSR reparations +25% from Western Zones
reaffirm Yalta -
6th and 9th August
Between 130,000 and 226,000 killed
'Little boy' and 'Fat man' -
38th parallel
taken from Japanese control -
End of war against Japan
-
X article – economic imperialism
-
50 original members
20 from capitalist Central and South American state
pro-Western – Iran, Iraq, Egypt
Greece, India ,Canada, Australia, New Zealand
Ethiopia and Liberia
Poland-1945
China disqualified from membership on grounds that they have been an aggressor during Chinese Civil War Security council - veto power
USA , Britain, France, China, USSR
USA used UN as a vehicle for intervention on a global scale to enhance its own foreign policy aims -
left wing parties merged - PM Groza
Communists popular
Red army occupied Romania
Opposition minimal -
Communist win 75% of votes in Bulgaria
-
Communist win 80% of votes in Romania
-
Power of veto from 1946 and 1955
-
- Ideas against non-proliferation
- Restricting military development
- Illumination through national armaments of atomic weapons and all other major weapons adaptable to mass destruction
- Removal of security council veto regarding punishment of a violator
Agreed for inspection regimes to ensure compliance Soviets insisted US destroy nuclear arsenal as a precondition
Plan destroyed -
Churchill gives ‘Iron Curtain’ speech at Fulton, Missouri
-
*US supported Ku Ming Tang
-
*Chang Kai Shek ordered first invasion of communists - more than 1 mil soldiers
Communists – inched Hu Ming Tang further back to Taiwan -
Gave US control of nuclear weapons to the civilian united states energy commission Considered all nuclear weapons to be restricted data – cannot be legally shared, even with allies
-
Communist win 75% of votes in Bulgaria
SLAS vs SLAD -
Stalin forced Bulgrain govt to include opposition Dec 1945
Communists turened to Labour party to disguise
Oct 1946 - elections opposition won 1/3
Cominform
Dimitrov - nationalised industry and collectivised agriculture -
National Democratic Front Won Elections 80%
-
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USA step up
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March - April
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Nov - Dec
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joins Cominform
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Congress - $400 mil economic and military assistance to Turkey and Greece
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Loyalty order – FBI orders to hunt down secret communists in public service
3 mill investigations
300 firings
List of subversive organisation- fuel for McCarthy's red scare
Truman -
European Recovery Programme
13.5 bln to 16 countries -
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Rigged elections
Gomulka removed (leader of Pol Comm party)
Bierut replaces -
India, Burma, Pakistan, Sri Lanka (Ceylon) gained independence
-
3 billion Chinese community and 40% of pop in Malaya
MCP gorillas - exclusively Chinese – imperial exploitation
UK saw this as part of a Soviet orchestrated effort to extend communist influence in Asia
British defeated MCP
Anti-communist Malay majority-Malayan antagonism toward Chinese
Rural strategic hamlets- Chinese villages to prevent communists gaining access to population
British encouraged moderate non-communists to distance themselves from Chinese through concessions -
Headed by General Curtis LeMay
Role - provide24-hour readiness to respond to external nuclear threat -
-
US zone - south
Syngman Rhee - anti- communist and nationalist
Reunite Korea and sovereign state and remove communists
Argued defending their border with Manchuria was better than defending a border a the 38th parallel
Needed to guarantee USA would protect South Korea and provide military aide to enable their army to enforce national unification of Korea -
Soviet Zone - north
Kim II Sung
Formed Korean Provisional Peoples' Committee – provisional communist govt
Development of guerrilla action by the North, to destabilised the South and undermine Rhee's regime Pressurise USSR and China to attack South to unify Korea - communism
200,000 communist supporters already in the South and a well- organised communist guerrilla force -
Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers (SCAP)
balanced budget, stricter lending criteria, wage and price controls, increased regulation of trade, etc
'super balanced budget' - target of 157million yen
USA demanded Japan join General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
Strengthen Western trade and prevent trade with communist China -
-
*UN failed to create a united Korea elections and could only do it in south alone
1949 – us occupation withdrew from south Korea
North- rigged elections – communist Kim II Sung – leader of one party state
Soviet occupation forced also withdrew
First months 1950 – propaganda war between north and south and border skirmishes
Communist victorying Chinese civil war without much soviet assistance
American withdrawal from south Korea
Spring 1950 – Stalin - Sung green light for reunification war -
7500 British troops still in South Korea
Stalin rejected supporting Kim II Sung
Suggested guerrilla forces in the south should be strengthened to undermine govt
South Korea not included in Defensive Perimeter Strategy -
1949 - Chinese Civil War
Jiang Jieshi exiled to Island of Taiwan and leader of Republic of China -
USA attempted to justify loss of China and withdrawl of direct military support for Jiang Jieshi
Dean G Acheson, George Marshall's successor committed to supporting KMT in Taiwan
Did this secretly so USA did not appear as 'imperialist menace' to China -
RDS 1
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Received right to establish consulates in other countries
Konrad Adenauer – first chancellor of Federal Republic of Germany (FRG)
Could have direct representation on the Organisation of European Economic Cooperation(OEEC) -
Increase general air, ground, sea strength, atomic capabilities and air and civilian defences to deter war
Develop military readiness to deter soviet aggression
Stressed urgency of building USA's political, economic and military power
investing in development of hydrogen bomb + military power
Containment -
Acheson argued military defence of Japan was the responsibility of USA
USA committed to protecting South Korea from communist Expansionism
(creation of model states - occupation and reconstruction of Japan; independence in Philippines)
Invasion of South Korea undermined his plan -
Accused of being soviet spy
Lied about passing info onto USSR while working in US State department 1937-38
Pumpkin Files - much evidence against Hiss -
Joseph McCarthy = republican senator
Army of communist conspirators working within the US government
Claimed he had 205 people who worked in the state department who were known to be members of the communist party
McCarthyism - urgency of moving US policy away from Eurocentric focus and towards policies more determined at Far East
Harry Truman accused of being too sof on communism and responsible for loss of China Lavender Scare - Many LGBTQ+ exposed and fired -
Head of FBI – J.Edgar Hoover - massive boost in funding
Many targets - 'Reducators'
Said people were undermining American traditions and customs and questioning correctness of American way of life -
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Crisis in Asia speech at National Press Club
Korea and Taiwan not in line
aimed to deter stalin and mao communization -
Committed both to guarentee security for the other in the event of aggression by Japan
Led to USA's diplomatic isolation of China Soviets focused on Europe and middle east – China focused on Asia
Korea – exception -
- After NSC-68 US policy makers came to regard Vietminh as a communist organisation that nationalist Justified US aid to France
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USA requested special session of Security Council Ussr boycotting security council; due to majority decision to recognise the republic of China under Jiang Jieshi as the legitimate of government, not the people's Republic of China under Mao USSR could not veto to block decision for ceasefire
Truman able to legitimise intervention in Korea -
General Douglus MacArthur led UN forces
June – sept 1950 (offensive)
Forces of the democratic people's republic of Korea advanced into South Korea and reached a perimeter close to perimeter Chinese troops massed in Manchuria in readiness for an move into Korea Throughout the UN - 29 states committed to military, economic or medical aid -
Developed into US-Chinese war
Stalin: indirect military support - ally of Korea would be pos
1600 pieces of artillery
178 military aircraft
258 T-34 tanks
China did not intervene
Truman ordered US 7th Fleer to defend Taiwan by positioning itself between China and Taiwan USA assumes Japan and and Defensive Perimeter States secured -
Phase 2 – sept – nov 1950 (counter-offensive/offensive) MacArthur landed at Inchon and succeeded in forcing North Korea forces back across 38th parallel Oct - Mao sent 30,000 chinese troops acoss Yalu river into north Korea Led to major counter attack against UN forces
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-
Zhou Enlai - First premier of people's republic of China
Sent military volunteers to support north korea
Interfered due to pressure from Stalin but did best to stay out of conflict -
Sent military volunteers to support North Korea Wanted to establish credentials as significant force in far east and communist world
Wanted to be seen acting independent of USSR
Consolidate position independently of USSR -
Phase 3 - Dec 1950 – June 1951(stabilisation and negotiation) Jan, Chinese forces had pushed across the 18th parallel and captured Seoul Feb, the UN condemned China as an aggressor
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Intention of doubling GDR's industrial output
-
Demands by MacAurther that US forces should push into North Korea and engage the Chinese and use air strikes and nuclear weapons against them
MacAurther was dismissed by Truman in April.
MacArthur wanted to commit the USA to a struggle for the reunification of Korea, Truman feared an extension of the war and bringing the USSR into it June, the USA was indicating to China and the USSR of its willingness to negotiate a ceasefire -
May 1951 Dean G Acheson took viw that the purpose of the invasion was to destabilise Japan, southeast Asia and the Philippines and even to influence the position in Europe
-
Signed in Bonn
Abolished the statute of occupation and recognised the full sovereignty of FRG
Adenauer agreed to renounce nuclear weapons and keep German Army limited and under strict civilian control -
Phase 4 – june 1951 – July 1953 (stalemate and peace) Neither side mounted any significant military offensives during this period
Lack of UN action convinced Mao and Stalin that there was a genuine desire for peace settlement
US had consolidated relations with Japan and felt more secure in involvement with the Far East Disinclination to cooperate with each other + negotiation on post- war prisoner release arrangements led to long delays in reaching a final settlement -
-
Recognise the full sovereignty of the Japanese people
Force Japan to renounce claims to neighbouring territories, including Korea, Formosa(Taiwan), the Kurile Islands, the Spratly Islands and the Parcel Islands No reparations or rearmament or limits economically
No responsibility for war USSR and China refused to sign -
Gave USA:
Unrestricted use of military bases in Japan
Administrative control of Owkinawa
Right to use military force to intervene in any internal disorder in Japan
Right to veto Japan offering military bases to other states -
USA commitment to preventing communism in Vietnam
Geostrategically important – useful market place for Japanese goods and strengthening of Japan's economy -
Communist government in one nation would quickly lead to communist takeovers in neighbouring states, each falling like a row of dominos
-
Five Year Plan aim was achieved in production of iron, steel and chemicals
July 1952 - workers' individual production targets suddenly raised by 10%
Stasi- secret police
decrease living standards
Ulbricht (GDR) summoned to Moscow was urged for more moderate policy and end to rapid socialization -
MacArthur ordered Japan to establish 75000 National Police Reserve(NPR) to be trained by US military advisory team- purpose was defensive Aug 1952- Japanese govt established 110,000 ground troops and 7600 maritime personnel
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-
Success of ID - mic test 10.1 megaton explosion – was not really a bomb as equipment necessary for transport was the size of a warehouse
-
SIgnificant and expensive military intervention in Korea
Nuclear weapons reliance = increased national Security + US Cold War stance
cost- effective method -
nuclear diplomacy
use nuclear strength to force agreements - verge of war -
Roll back communism and Moscow's power as part of strategy to win Cold War
Containment – static and restrictive E spoke of freeing people in Eastern Europe from Soviet Control = never attempted to undermine sphere of influence or liberate -
-
Jan1951 to April 1953 – 447,000 people have fled alone
18,000 workers, 9000 medium and small farmers, skilled workers and retirees
17,000 professionals and intellectuals
24,000 housewives
2718 members of SED
1619 members of FDJ ( Free German Youth Movement)
In first 4 months of 1953 -
Foreign policy:
Soviet Union must remain as unchallenged leaders of socialist communist – growing competition from China and Mao Zedong
Firm grip maintained over Eastern Bloc and satellite states
Germany prevented from rearming and becoming future threat to Soviet Union
Ussr must continue to expand nuclear capability + keep up with arms race
Spending on military security +soviet conventical forces has to be reduced
International tension must be defused and care taken not to provoke USA -
-
John Foster Dulles - rollback Said containment was expensive, interventionist, prolonging Cold War without making significant moves towards conciliation new strategies - nuclear weapons more effective, brinkmanship, massive retaliation, increased commitment to alliance systems, continued containment
-
Replaced by Georgi Malenkov, Molotov, Beria, Bulganin
Nikita Khrushchev – first secretary of Russian communist party
improved living standards in USSR
less spent on armaments Soviets desired detente -
-
*April to June
Arrest of leading non - communist politicians
Growing resentment - increase in food prices
East German migration to West through Berlin's open frontier -
Soviets desired detente
May – Churchill plans for German reunification was unpopular
Fearful of neutral Germany being pressurised by USSR -
Sept + Oct – Nikita Khrushchev visited China
China given significant economic and technological aid – strengthen economy and national security -
*Presidium of the Soviet Council of Misters met to consider problem in GDR
KGB - reassess value of GDR to Soviet Bloc - expensive and unstable
Deputy Prime Minister Malenkov urges to propose a united and neutral Germany which would pay substantial reparations to USSR
Idea rejected by other soviet ministers -
Strikes and riots in east Germany
Workers demanded increased pay, political freedom and re-establishment of German Social Democratic party
Gorlitz and Bitterfeld – determined efforts to take over city governments
East Berlin – 100,000 people demonstrated on the streets -
125 killed – 19 in East Berlin
Soviet troops backed by tanks suppresses uprising -
Convicted of passing American nuclear secrets to the USSR
Judge was terrorised and frightened by the atmosphere of fear in the country – would be charged as a commie if her were to do something to save their lives -
USA responded to pressure of public opinion in West Germany to intervention in East Germany - called Foreign Ministers Conference - future of Germany
Provocative broadcasts from its radio stations in Berlin – to prolong unrest in East Germany Strengthened support for Adenauer in FRG
Won election in Sept by larger majority than previous election -
There was to be military demarcation line with a demilitarised zone of two km on each side. The line was roughly that of 38th parallel
All military forced should withdraw to their respective territories
The reparation of prisoners would begin
All the pre-war status quo restored but it had a large impact NSC-68 - usa would encourage nations resisting soviet political aggression and containment was globalised
WG allowed to rearm and prospect of solution for germany lost -
Nuclear weapons and nuclear superiority as aggressor
most effective way to deter aggression -
Army Chief of Staff – General Matthew Ridgeways convinced Eisenhower that the war in Indochina would cost USA many troops
Eisenhower refused to unilateral military action
Diplomatic solution - USSR supported
The People's Republic of China wanted to appear moderate but put some pressure on Ho Chi Minh to negotiate an end to the war with France -
25 Jan to 18 Feb 1954
Hope to reunite Germany
Beria arrested and executed - treachery that he led to uprising as wanted to find solution to problems of divided Germany
Both Side rejected -
*1500 more times powerful than A-bomb used at Hiroshima 1945
-
March 13 to May 7, 1954
French began construction of fortress in valley of Dien Bien Fu – 50,000 troops - 72 hours - garrisons air strip out of action - open bombardment by Vietminh
Hoped to lure the Vietnamese in
French on point of military defeat at hands of Viet Minh (supported by China against French colonialism and military)
Sieg warfare- French in a Nuse over 8 week s of fighting
7th may 1954- 6000 dead, remaining 10,000 sick and wounded French soldiers surrendered -
140,000 strong Self-Defence Force created, supported by $240million by US and sale of US agricultural surplus to Japan
USA attitude in Japan- based on managing rearmament to avoid consequences that may lead to instability -
*Ceasefire - French agreed to withdraw troops from Northern Vietnam
divided by 17th parallel
not intended to be permanent - elections within 2 years
USA and southern zone refused to sign agreements
First time non-European nationalist force had defeated elite troops from a Europeans colonial power South Vietnam - President Ngo Dinh Diem
USA said they would support - pro American + non-communist
NV - Ho Chi Minh
Forbidden North from placing own forces into South -
8th may 1954- Geneva settlement
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*
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John Foster Dulles -
Thailand Pakistan GB France US Australia New Zealand
Philippines -
-
US senate voted McCarthy guilty of bringing the body into disrepute Army accused McCarthy of not conducting investigation in fair manner
Republican party began to distance themselves + condemned
Popularity dropped
Become known for paranoia witch-hunts -
- Austrian peace treaty and withdraw their army Britain, France and Soviet union ended military occupation of Austria in exchange for Austria's neutrality
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-
Khrushchev recognised GDR as an independent state
FRG would regard any state other than USSR as an unfriendly act and would end diplomatic relations with such states -
Multistage thermal nuclear hydrogen bomb in a deliverable format
-
*Baghdad Pact Organisation
UK, Iraq, Turkey, Persia(Iran), Pakistan
counter thereat of soviet expansion into vital Middle East oil-producing regions
Mutually security organisation and economic cooperation pact -
allowed to form army
USA wanted centrality of Germany and an alliance to contain communism effectively and at low cost -
Collective security strategy – non-threatening alliance
Military reinforcement of the USSR's satellite structure
Members - Czechoslovakia USSR Bulgaria Hungary Poland East Germany Albania Romania means of legitimising its influence on Eastern Europe - response to NATO -
Withdrawal of all occupying powers
Re-established Austria as sovereign state - neutral Austria had been divided into occupational zones - USSR receiving economic aid for Austria USSR willingness to accept Finland and Yugoslavia as neutral states - therefore non liable to be subjected to joining Soviet sphere agreement - co-operation
West removed occupation forces from West Germany -
Open Skies proposal - each side to provide details of military installations and to allow aerial reconnaissance
to end issue of superpowers inspecting each other's nuclear arsenals and taking a step closer to disarmament
Khrushchev rejected proposal Eisenhower proposed - unified Germany, free elections and Germany's freedom of own security - would be part of NATO
Khrushchev would only contemplate if it became demilitarised and neutral - agreement on free elections but no procedures set up -
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Many skilled workers and those who contributed most to East Germany's economy
Walther Ulbricht persuaded Khrushchev to take direct action -
Ho Chi Minh forced to concentrate on consolidating communist control in North Vietnam to fight for reunification
-
Vietnam Workers' Party (VWP) - wanted land reform Regime seized privately owned land and redistribute amongst rural farming population Public denunciations of landowners and landlords + thousands executed and imprisoned in labour camps
-
*20th Congress of Communist Party of Soviet Union
Shift in USSR thinking - abandoned Marxist-Leninist view that war between socialists and capitalists were inevitable
Communist states in Soviet Block would concentrate on resources and internal improvements and progress rather than ideological war with West - cooperation Stalinist aggression – high expenses and govt debt
Khrushchev focus Soviet resources on domestic developments
Understood risks of nuclear war
Diplomacy to diffuse tensions -
De-Stalinisation in the Soviet Bloc - political stability, economic growth and improved living conditions
Reported Stalin's crimes
Circulated throughout Eastern Europe secretly
By June had reached US State department -
Implemented de-Stalinisation in Poland
Press censorship relaxed
AK – Polish Home Army freed -in opposition to pro-Moscow communists
PoProstu – reformist newspaper gaining popularity with workers and nationalists
Reforms driven by intelligencia and Polish Writers Union
No consensus on Reforms in Poland
More open political atmosphere
Less dependence on Soviet Union -
Poland - Workers on Strike + Anti-communist uprising
Workers demanded freedom for Catholic Church, bread and liberty + end and freedom from Soviet control
74 killed by Polish army - Poznan
After Secret Speech many Poles started to demand more political freedom and national sovereignty
Wage cuts and poor working conditions
Became anti-communist uprising
Prison stormed – over 250 other prisoners freed
Troops from Poznan military joined in conversations with protesters and some may have joined -
Minister of Defence - Soviet Marshal Rosovsky - activated military units form other neighbouring garrisons
Troops told the protested were being led by German agitator looking to discredit Poland -
*Ho Chi Minh forced to issue public apology for aggressive and clumsy implementation of land reform programme Many victims of the programme were loyal communists who happened to have little wealth
Much advise from China
Full scale collectivisation was underway and agricultural production increased -
*Wladyslaw Gomulka - First Secretary of Polish United Workers' Party - control of Polish Communist Party
Khrushchev met Gomulka + threatened military intervention if no cooperate
Gomulka agreed not to carry out anti-communist reforms
Poland still member of Warsaw Pact:
Socialist path over communist
Soviet troops and Polish security secured + freedom
Showed Moscow would allow satellites a measure of national independence if led by trustworthy men
Force not used - China supported PCP -
Chinese govt urging Moscow for peaceful solution
Soviet representatives recalled to Moscow and replaces by Poles
Polish debt to Moscow cancelled
Collectivisation over agriculture abandoned
Censorship over media and arts relaxed
Repression of catholic church reduced
Increased autonomy to land
Still one party state -
Students in Budapest demonstrated list of 16 demands
- Appointment of Imre Nagy as prime minister
- Withdrawal of soviet troops from Hungary
- Freedom of speech
- A free press
- Multi-party elections
- Disbanding of secret police New Kremlin leadership disapproved of Rakosi and removed after Stalin's death -
President of the Writer's Union of Hungary, Veres Peter read a manifesto to crowd
Destroyed stature of Stalin – a gift from 1951
Crowd entered parliament and demanded 16 points be read over radio waves
Escalated to armed revolt by ordinary working class
Workers' groups joined students and seized power from communist local authorities
4 days of fighting
Demonstrators were fired on by the Hungarian Secret Police
Hungarian army joined
AVH opened fire on the crowd - killed 3
Nagy arranged ceasefire -
Met soviet delegation – Anastas Mikoyan to convince USSR military intervention not needed
Agreed to accept Soviet troops would remain in Hungary to 'ensure stability'
Gerő and outgoing Prime Minister András Hegedüs had called Soviet troops
Protesters fighting AVH troops and Soviet troops
Nagy called for calmness but many protesters wanted immediate action
Some Hungarian units actively fighting against rebellion while some of the army joined -
-
-
Described as a 'broad nationalist movement'
Red army withdrew forces in Budapest
Declared they would move them from Hungary as a whole over the next two days – pressure from China
In exchange, Nagy govt would disarm rebels and restore order to country
Announced ADH to be dissolved and new National Guard was to be formed made up element of police army and rebels
8,000 political parties to be released -
-
Skirmish broke out between rebels and AVH at headquarters of Hungarian Workers Party
AVH surrendered and 23 of their officers were executed
Anti-Communist violence Moscow wanted to use force
Soviet govt had pledged to tolerate Nagy govt reconsider the status of soviet troops stationed in Warsaw pact countries -
Feared collapse of communism in Hungary
Nagy backed Hungarian revolutionaries
Bloodshed + unrest in Budapest -
-
About 4000 Hungarians killed, 200,000 went into self-imposed exile in Austria
Imre Nagy executed
- Lack of intervention from West – reassured Moscow that West would not interfere in any problems in Eastern Europe
- East firmly under Soviet control
- Demoted to a debating issue in UN – UN would not interfere in Eastern Europe
- Peaceful coexistence compromised
- Need for social and political freedom in Eastern Europe
35,000 anti-Communist activists arrested and 300 executed -
** Khrushchev increased the number of Soviet troops in Hungary from 2 to 4
made Hungarian govt accept and pay for troops
Warsaw Pact strengthened - fewer countries would want to rebel
Lack of US and UN intervention enforced Iron Curtain and undermined 'roll back' policy 2500 - 3000 Hungarian died
3,000 to 20,000 wounded
700 soldiers killed and 1500 wounded on soviet side
Over 180,000 fled country into exile
22,000 brough before courts and imprisoned
350 executed -
-
Diem – corrupt and nepotistic
Policies – divisive and damaging
USA supported ' because we knew no one better' - John Foster Dulles
US economic aid taken by Diem and his family and officials
Diem's strategy focused on repression and silencing political opponents
Support from USA – opposition in South Vietnam
Diem's regime based on appearance of democracy but was not in reality
Primary interest was preservation of power
Creation of loyal and corrupt ruling group and support of USA -
- March 21- 23
Eisenhower and Harold Macmillan to discuss key issues and improve relations recently strained over U.S. criticism of British role in Suez Crisis
Agreed that USA to station IRBMs in Britain, manned by British personnel
- March 21- 23
Eisenhower and Harold Macmillan to discuss key issues and improve relations recently strained over U.S. criticism of British role in Suez Crisis
Agreed that USA to station IRBMs in Britain, manned by British personnel
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USA convinced sputnik had been developed to aggravate USA and were showing that they could send nuclear attacks form space Sputnik appeared to undermine effectiveness of massive retaliation strategy that was so central to USA's Cold War nuclear defence programme Sputnik created sense of urgency from USA to develop own space programme
-
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Commissioned by Eisenhower to investigate the state of US-Soviet nuclear capability
Called for urgent strengthening of US missile technology, along with offensive and defensive military capabilities
called for 50% increase in US military spending and redesign of US Defence Department
presented concept of missile gap
Revealed gaps between Soviet and US tech and predicted 100 to 30 lead in IBCMs in favour of USSR
Suggested reliance on cheap nuclear weapons instead of expensive Army divisions -
Gaither Report based on conclusions on Soviet nuclear warheads by USSR – inadequate evidence
Eisenhower placed trust in data received by U-2 spy plane intelligence gathering rather than Gaither Report
Suggested slow rate of production of nuclear warheads by USSR -
Most Eastern European countries except Poland and Yugoslavia agreed to the USSR as 'the first and mightiest' of the socialist countries
64 political parties from all over the world
Revealed Sino-Soviet disagreement - Mao and Chinese Communist Party - remarks on Soviet intro-party struggle, comments on nuclear war and declaration China would take over Great Britain in 15 years
Beijing’s challenge to Soviet leadership of the socialist bloc.
Mao argued for a centralized world communist movement -
National Aeronautics and Space Administration - supervision of space exploration activities in the United States
-
Sino-Soviet relations deteriorating + USSR needed to strengthen USSR power as dominant communist power
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-
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Soviet space programme seemed to be dominating USA
West Germany now part of NATO – if equipped with nuclear weapons, could threaten Soviet security
USSR hold on part of Eastern Europe was fragile – Heavy Soviet defence spending draining resources and undermining communist system
No significant restriction on GDR – citizens leaving country and fleeing to West
West had not recognised existence of GDR
strengthen economy and defences of USSR + global ideological expansion -
*Shift in US policy towards the region
Economic stability became a target and USA supported the creation of a regional banking institution –
Inter-American Development Bank and regional common markets
Dwight D. Eisenhower also agreed not to offer unconditional American support to dictators Ordered embargo on further arms shipments in Batista -
*
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- Demanded withdrawal of Western troops from West Berlin
- Berlin to be declared a 'free city'
- All soviet right in berlin to be transferred to GDR
- Demanded withdrawal of Western troops from West Berlin
-
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West Germany's chancellor, Konrad Adenauer, feared American betrayal
-
Atlas and Titan models developed – added to Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile (IRBM) systems
-
Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missile (SLBM) Polaris
The Thor
Minuteman (ICBM) SYSTEM -
Authorized the use of armed struggle in the south
Strategy agreed to strengthen communism in North Vietnam well underway by 1959
Served as a declaration of war on the South
Aim – use military force to overthrow Diem's regime and remove the presence of 'the ruling power of the imperialist and feudalist forces' -
The Carribean regarded by USA as its own 'back yard'
Determined to maintain stability
Cuban constitution gave USA rights of intervention and required Cuba to provide land from naval bases With brother Raul Castro, Ernesto 'Che' Guevara and 79 supporters
Guerrilla campaign conducted against president Fulgencio Batista's regime US base at Guantanamo Bay today
USA had huge influence in the affairs -
*METO turns into Central Treaty Organisation
Iraq withdrew after anti-soviet monarchy overthrown
US - associate member
headquarters moved from Baghdad to Ankara
1979 - Iran withdraw after fall of Sah
March 1979 - dissolved period military exercises and coordination with NATO - developments - Turkey-Persia telephone line
No Arab countries in CENTO - no military support when requested (Pakistan vs India 1965) -
US fears of Cuba becoming a Soviet satellite in the Caribbean and a base from where pro-communist regimes could be managed across Latin America
-
-
Khrushchev - first Soviet leader to visit USA
Discussed disarmament and situation in Berlin
Agreed to settle international issues through diplomacy rather than force Visit caused deterioration in Soviet's relations with China reinforced West's certainty that communist power bloc had not been created by alliance between China and USSR Khrushchev - opposition from Chinese + Soviet
Wanted deal over Berlin
Wanted agreement to prohibit nuclear weapons in the pacific and ban on neucs in Germany -
*Soviets
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- SU to purchase 5 mil tonnes of Cuban sugar over 5 year period US owned oil companies refused to refine it so Castro nationalised
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American U-2 spy plane had been shot down while on a mission over the Soviet Union
Gary Powers - pilot denied spying despite Gaither report
Eisenhower administration compounded the situation by initially disclaiming any knowledge of espionage flights over the Soviet Union
Plans for Geneva Summit scrapped + plans for Eisenhower to visit SU Khrushchev exaggerating Soviet nuclear capacity
U-2 suggested missile gap in US favour -
Were going to discuss Test Ban Treaty, Cuba and Berlin
SU, USA, GB, FRA - discussion possible progress over Berlin and future of Germany, creation of nuclear free zone in central Europe
Soviets - wanted Berlin to be 'free city' with min military presence and Peace Treaty with East Germany
Summit collapsed - controversy about American aerial espionage over SU Diplomatic recognition of GDR halted - U-2 -
U-2 flights semi-obsolete Enables USA to gain more coverage in one capsule than the combined four years of U-2 coverage
Space important US security and control of space would lead to global control -
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North Vietnamese leadership, established a new nationalist organization in SV
Purpose = free SV from what it saw as US imperialism
Aimed to create a unified, sovereign and independent Vietnamese state
+ overthrow Diem's regime + influence of US backers Rejection of Diem's quasi-imperialist policies:
Campaign to destroy communist in SV
Largely ignored interests of majority of pop – rural peasantry + were reminded of French through Catholics
Local councils replaced by govt – appointed officials -
Viet Minh infrastructure still in place
'spiritual father' - Ho Chi Minh acted as influence of NFL
Mutually supportive relationship between communism and nationalism in NFL
Nationalistic over Communism
NFL controlled from capital – Hanoi, but a means by which communists could infiltrate and influence the south with ease NFL – seen as agent of communisation Not in breach of Geneva conference agreements Programme appealed to intellectuals, students, middle class and rural working class -
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B-52 strategic bomber aircraft armed with thermonuclear weapons remained on continuous airborne alert Invulnerable to soviet first strike and ready to carry out immediate attack
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Declared in inauguration speech that USA would do whatever necessary to support survival of liberty and freedom
Reaffirmation of Truman Doctrine
Increases defence budget
Promised more flexible conventional forces
Favoured expansion of USA's nuclear arsenal and its Polaris missile submarine force Strategy of flexible response : expand non-nuclear capabilities to reduce threat of nuclear war and react to threats like insurgency and subversion -
First Soviet cosmonaut became national and international hero
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Plan – to enable 1500 anti-castro exiles to land on Cuba and carry out a military coup to remove him
Kennedy supported CIA- inspired attack
Met by 20,000 heavily armed Cuban troops Kennedy now looked weak and aggressive at the same time
Unmitigated disaster and humiliation for Kennedy
Confirmed Soviet Union's and Castro's fears about US intentions for Cuba
Castro power consolidated in Cuba -
Khrushchev thought Kennedy was young, politically vulnerable and easy to manipulate
Kennedy refused to compromise on status of Berlin and accommodate Khrushchev's demand that Berlin should cease to be an 'escape route' for East Germans
Kennedy told American people that West Berlin represented a symbol of freedom and that the treat was a global threat
Berlin – symbol of differences between superpowers and Cold War confrontation -
Kennedy sked Congress to increase defence spending, call up army reservists and reactivate ships about to be scraped
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Berlin physically sealed off - Wire fences replaced with concreate wall and deep perimeter defences - 4 recognised crossing points GDR's economic crisis resolved immediately – skilled professionals and workers unable to leave Inaction of West and tolerance of wall suggested West had reached degree of recognition of GDR Building of wall guaranteed no military conflict between USR and USA – Kennedy took view that wall enabled avoidance of nuclear confrontation
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*Kennedy sends General Taylor and Chair of State Planning Department Policy Committee, Walt Roscow, to Vietnam to assess the situation Report recommended:
- Increase in helicopter force to facilitate counterinsurgency action
- Greater training support for South Vietnamese Army
- Increase in number of US combat forces
- Strategic bombing of North Vietnam JFK committed to containment and domino theory
Emphasised ensuring South Vietnam was a democracy -
Extensive campaign of terrorist attacks against civilians, and covert operations by US Central Intelligence Agency in Cuba to destabilises regime and facilitate anti-castro revolt
General Edward Lansdale head of operation -
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*To show military might of USA
Khrushchev's Defence Minster – Rodion Yankelevich Malinovsky concluded that in the face of a determined US attack -
Cuba would stand for no more than a week -
Aim -create armed stockades+house south Vietnamese rural peasants
Intention – isolate people from Vietcong
Diem and Nhu could spread influence rather than encourage farmers to challenge Vietcong Failure:
led to improved recruitments of peasants for Vietcong
Peasants erect fences and construct defensive moats against enemy - targeted govt officials Corruption - took money for medical aid, irrigation systems fertiliser and seeds
Flawed Scheme - impossible to isolate peasants from Vietcong agents -
*Soviets willing to support Castro politically, economically and militarily
Installations of nuclear weapons in mountains of Cuba
Nuclear weapons both short and medium range - could reach between 1100 and 2800 km Acknowledged it would take at lead a decade for soviet missiles on Cuba to establish parity with USA's long -range missile capability
Reducing missile gap
Reduced spending on conventional military forces Khrushchev hoped to develop a linkage strategy between Cuba and Berlin -
air strike plan, land based invasion and blockade Soviet union had been supplying Castro with arms shipments for some time but USA did not intervene
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Kennedy's National Security Adviser, McGeorge Bundy informed him Kennedy assembled advisory committee of the National Security Council
ExComm – 'hawks' called for US military action + 'doves' favoured a diplomatic solution Naval blockade - on offensive weapon shipments to Cuba Too many missiles to guarantee destruction of them all before Soviet retaliation
Kennedy initially supported 'no warning' attack
US bases put on maximum alert in preparation for a possible military strike against Cuba -
US ambassador to UN – Adali Stevenson condemned Soviet deployment Neither Soviet ambassador to the UN, Valerian Zorin, nor the ambassador to the USA, Anatoly Dobrynin had been told of the deployment by Moscow Khrushchev called blockade an 'act of aggression'
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Khrushchev looking for a way out of Crisis
If USA made a non- invasion pledge, then the Soviet Union would remove its military presence on Cuba Kennedy kept options open - wanted to invade Cuba and remove missiles and overthrow Castro -
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Demanded America should remove their own missiles from Turkey as well ExComm opposed removal of US removal of missiles from Turkey
News that U-2 spy plane had been shot down over Cuba and pilot - Major Rudolf Anderson- had been killed
US air attacks fought against Soviet S-75 anti-aircraft emplacements on Cuba Meeting summoned with Soviet ambassador, Dobrynin, during which Kennedy to infrom him US willing to remove US missiles on Turkey
Not incorporated as Final Settlement - NATO not told -
Kennedy praise Khrushchev's decision Castro felt a betrayal from Khrushchev refused to allow inspection of the missile sites once they had been dismantles Checks were essential for US-Soviet agreement and were only fulfilled as Soviet ships removing missiles revealed the contents of their cargos to US inspectors
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Diem = Roman Catholic + favoured religion and thousands of Catholic exiles from North
Many got employment in military + govt Ngo Dinh Thuc – own brother became Archbishop of Hue after Diem lobbied Vatican on him behalf Persecuting the Buddhist community -
Buddhists banned from flying flags in honour of Buddha's birthday = Hue
Catholics encouraged to display Papal flags in celebration for Thuc Buddhist protests multiplied across South Vietnam -organised and coordinated Trained on how to develop anti- government propaganda
Organised hunger strikes and mass rallies
Engaged with foreign press- US
Tri Quang rallied support from every quarter Diem resolute to belief Vietcong had caused Hue incident -
Elderly Buddhist monk – Quang Doc – publicly burned himself alive in Saigon
Many more acts followed -
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Test to west's commitment to defend freedom by controlling expansionist communism – Khrushchev handed USA the best propaganda tool
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*Tri Quang warned that USA must put further pressure on Diem to carry out reforms or remove him from power Blamed USA for problem was it was supporting Diem an regime Also sought refuge at US Embassy and Henry Cabot Lodge refused to hand him over to Nhu - had ransacked pagodas, fired on civilians and beaten monks and nuns
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USA, USSR, +UK
'Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapons Tests in the Atmospheres, in Outer Space and Under Water' Nuclear test ban negotiation proposed in 30 oct 1962
No provision for underground test of periodic view and inspection
Treaty was major factor in détente Sanctioning of testing of nuclear powers
Still allowed to underground
China and France refused to sign Soviet union forced to respond than deterred from taking action -
*Roger Hilsman – head to State Department's Fr Eastern Bureau, sent a telegram to Henry Cabot Lodge – US ambassador to South Vietnam Emphasised Lodge should explore an alternative leadership in South Vietnam and start planning replacement leader for Diem - green light for ARVN to coup
Approved by Kennedy -
Kennedy conscious of implications of us being involved of removal of Sovereign state leader
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connected Kremlin and White House Frequency of Hotline is unknown
Could have had symbolic value Only used first time during 6 day war between Israel and Arab countries -
Clear that Diem not prepared to undo repression of bring Nhu under some control War would not be won with Diem as head Taylor and McNamara recommended significant reduction in US support – to put pressure on Diem to cooperate Generals in South planned soup on Diem
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6 Nov 1963 – Lodge said to Kennedy that it was purely Vietnamese
Acknowledged that withhold USA – it would not have been initiated -
Ussr - Soviet SS-6 system – too large and lacking in mobility in its deployment Khrushchev ordered replacement with more mobile SS-7
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third of all bombers on minutes notice to get airborne in even of Soviet first strike
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Ho Chi Minh passes away